FSC 203 Manual

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TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

FSC203 DRYLAND HORTICULTURE (1+1)

PRACTICAL MANUAL

II B. Sc (Hons.) Horticulture

Course Teachers: Dr.M.P.KAVITHA


Assistant Professor (Agronomy)

HORTICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE


TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
PERIYAKULAM 625 604
2024

CONTENTS
Ex. Date Title of the Exercise Date of Sign
No submission
1. Preparation of seed bed, fertilizer application and
sowing
2. Analysis of rainfall data and its interpretation
3. Collection and interpretation of data on temperature
and evaporation
4. Study of Dry farming implements
5. Study of agronomic measures of soil and moisture
conservation
6. Study of mulches and Antitranspirants
7. Study of erosion problems in field
8. Preparation of contingent crop planning for aberrant
weather conditions
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Ex. No. 1 Date:

Preparation of seed bed, fertilizer application and sowing

Objectives
1. To study the methods of preparation of seed bed, fertilizer application and sowing

Nursery
"A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling of young vegetable seedlings
until they are ready for more permanent planting."
Need for Nursery
Some vegetables require special cares during their early growth period. There are some vegetables with
very small sized seeds. These are first sown in the nursery for better care and to combat with the time for field
preparation and after about one month of seed sowing, transplanted in the main field.
Advantages of Nursery Management:
● It is possible to provide favourable growth conditions i.e. germination as well as growth
● Better care of younger plants as it is easy to look after nursery in small area against pathogenic infection, pests
and weeds.
● Crop grown by nursery raising is quite early and fetch higher price in the market, so economically more
profitable.
● There is saving of land and labour as main fields will be occupied by the crops after 1 month. More intensive
crop rotations can be followed.
● More time is available for the preparation of main field because nursery is grown separately.
● As vegetable seeds are very expensive particularly hybrids, so we can economize the seed by sowing them in
the nursery.

Site Selection is the first important consideration for nursery management


Critical points needed to be considered while selecting nursery area are:
● Area selected should be well drained, and free from water logging
● There should be proper sunlight,
● The nursery should be near the water supply so that irrigation can be easy.
● The area should be well protected from pet and wild animals

Soil and soil preparation:


Soil Quality
● Raising of vegetable seedlings requires fertile and healthy soil.
● Preferably, the soil for nursery should be loam to sandy loam, loose and friable, rich in organic
matter and well drained.
● The soil pH should be close to the neutral i.e. about 7.0
Soil preparation
● It needs a deep cultivation of the nursery land either by soil turning plough or by spade and
subsequent 2-3 hoeing with cultivator.
● After that all the clots, stones and weeds from the field should be removed and land should be
leveled.
● Mix 2 kg well rotten and fine Farm yard manure/compost or leaf compost or 500 g vermi compost
per square meter and mix in the soil. If the soil is heavy mix 2-3 kg sand per square meter so that the seed
emergence may not be hampered.

Soil treatment: For getting healthy seedlings


For raising the healthy seedlings, soil must be treated to make it pathogen and pest free. Different methods
adopted for this purpose are:

Treatment of soil against pathogens

A. Soil solarization
● Suitable Time Period: May-June as temperature rises up to 45oC at this time.
● Wet the soil with water, or saturate it with water
● Spread white polythene of 200 gauges on the whole nursery area for about 5-6 weeks.
● The margin of the polythene should be covered by wet soil (compressed mud) to check the entry of
air.
● After 5-6 weeks remove the polythene sheet
● Prepare the beds for seed sowing.

B. Formalin Solution treatment:


● This treatment should be done 15-20 days before seed sowing.
● Prepare formalin solution (1.5 to 2%) in one container and drench the soil @ 4-5 litre of water per
square meter soil surface to saturate it up to a depth of 15-20 cm.
● Cover the drench area with polythene sheet of 200 gauge.
● Put the wet soil on the margin of the covered polythene sheet so as it does not allow the polythene
film blown away by the wind and air from the covered area to out side.
● Removes the cover (polythene) after 15 days.
● Prepare the beds for seed sowing.

C. Application of fungicides:
● Generally used fungicides: Captan, Thiram which kill the soil borne pathogens.
● Use 5-6 g of any of the fungicides per square meter nursery area.
D. Insect Control:
Reason of such application: Presence of certain insect pest and their egg or secondary stage insects present in
the soil which can infect the seedlings in the later stage.
● To save the seedlings against them, some insecticides are also used as soil treatment.
● Recommended insecticide is Chlorpyriphos @ 2 ml/ liter of water.
● Depth of 15 to 20 cm in the nursery soil and then prepared the beds for seed sowing.
E. Steam treatment:
● Hot steam can be used to treat the soil against harmful insect pest.
● For this, cover the required area with the help of polythene sheet and stop the movement of air in the
covered area.
● Supply the hot steam for at least 4-6 hours continuously.
● This way all the harmful pathogen and insect pest will be killed.
Nursery bed preparation
Nursery bed should be prepared according to the season and crop. In the rainy season raised beds are
prepared but in the winter and summer season flat beds should be prepared. Similarly onion in the Rabi season
requires flat beds. For the uniform and high percentage of germination the soil must be fine and moist enough.If
the seedlings are to be raised in boxes during unfavourable weather condition, the flower pots, polythene bags,
potting plugs, wooden treys, earthen pots etc. may be used. Prepare soil mixture in the ratio of 1:1:1 of soil, sand
and well rotten FYM/leaf mould etc. and fill the mixture in these seedlings raising structure. Arrangement should
be made to drain excess water from these structures by making a hole in the bottom of all types of pots.

Raised nursery beds


● Length of the bed may be kept 3 to 5 meter; however, width is restricted to 1 meter only which
facilitates intercultural operations.
● The beds are raised 15 to 20 cm high from the ground level. A space of 30 - 40 cm is left in between two
beds.
● The space between two beds helps in weeding, nursery care against diseases and insect pest and also for
draining out the excess rain water from the nursery beds.
● The number of beds depends on the particular crop, season and growing area of crop.
● The beds should be prepared in the east and west direction and line should be made from north to south
direction on the beds.

Sowing of seeds in the nursery


After the seed bed preparation seeds are sown in the nursery bed either by broadcasting or in lines
depending upon the nature and season of crop.
Broad casting method: In broadcasting method seeds are broadcasted on the well prepared nursery beds and later
on the seeds are covered with well rotten fine sieved and treated FYM or compost.
● The major disadvantages of this method are:
● Uneven distribution of seeds in the nursery beds.
● Growth and development of seedlings is poor.
● Some times nursery becomes so dense to look like as patches of grasses. In such cases there is more
possibility of damping off disease occurrence.

Line Sowing
● Line sowing is the best method of seed sowing in nursery.
● Lines are made 0.5 to 1.0 cm deep parallel to the width at an distance of 5.0 cm from the line and
seeds are sown or placed singly at a distance of about 1.0 cm apart.
● Cover the seeds with fine mixture of sand, soil and well rotten and sieved FYM or leaf compost etc.
(1:1:1). After the seed covering a light irrigation must be given.

Seed covering material and its treatments

Seed cover
After seed sowing the seed that are sown either by broadcast method or line sowing method required cover
for better emergence. Therefore, a mixture of sand: soil: FYM in the ratio of 1:1:1 is prepared, well mixed together
and treated with any method of soil treatment as discussed above. It will be better to treat this mixture while
treating the nursery soil. Apply 3-4 g thiram or captan per kg mixture if, it is not treated. Care should be taken that
every seed is well covered by seed covering material.
Use of mulch
To maintain the soil moisture for seed germination cover the seed bed with a thin layer of mulch of paddy
straw or sugar cane trash, or sarkanda or any organic mulch during hot weather and by plastic mulch (plastic sheet)
in cool weather. It has following advantages:
● It maintains the soil moisture and temperature for better seed germination.
● It suppresses the weeds.
● Protects from direct sunlight and raindrops.
● Protects against bird damage.

Removal of mulch
Due attention is given to remove the covered mulch from the seedbed. After three days, observe the seed
beds daily. As and when the white thread like structure is seen above the ground, remove the mulch carefully to
avoid any damage to emerging plumules. Always remove mulch in the evening hours to avoid harmful effect of
bright sun on newly emerging seedlings

Use of shadding net


After seed germination during the seedling growth, if there is very high temperature (> 30 o C) then beds
should be covered by 50% or 60% shedding nets of green/green + black coloured, about 60 - 90 cm above ground
by the use of suitable support.

Watering
● The nursery beds require light irrigation with the help of rose can till the seeds get germinated.
● Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be drained out from the field as and when it is required
otherwise plants may die due to excess of water.
● Watering in the beds depends upon the weather condition. If temperature is high, open irrigation is
applied. Need not to irrigate the beds during rainy days.

Thinning
It is an important operation to remove weak, unhealthy, diseased, insect pests damaged and dense plants
from the nursery beds keeping distance of about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from plant to plant. The thinning facilitates balance
light and air to each and every plant. It also helps in watching the diseased and insect pest attacked plants while
moving around the nursery.
Fertilizer application
While selecting the method of application of manures and fertilizers to the nursery plants, nurserymen
should consider the nutrients, their ability to be effectively absorbed, their effect on soil and environment,
equipment availability and the relative cost involved. However, in general, fertilizers in the nursery are applied
either as surface application, sub-surface application or as foliar sprays.

Weed control
Timely weeding in nursery is very important to get healthy seedling. If there are some weeds in the seed
bed, remove them manually either by hand or by hand hoe (thin forked Khurpi). Pre emergence herbicides can also
be sprayed soon after seed sowing to control the weeds. Stomp @ 3 ml/litre of water should be sprayed on the
nursery beds after the seed sowing and seed covering with mixture of FYM, soil and sand.

Plant protection
Adaptation of plant protection measures in the nursery against the incidence of insect pest and diseases is
very important task to get the healthy seedlings. Damping off seedlings, leaf curl, leaf blight diseases and leaf
miner and borer infect the seedling in the nursery. The care for controlling them time to time is essential.
Damping off
● This is very serious disease of nursery.
● Pre-emergence death of seeds is seen.
● In first instance girdling takes place on the stem near base of the stem and seedlings bent down near
the ground and die.
● The causal organisms are pythium, phytopthora, rhizoctonia and Fusarium fungi.
● Treat the nursery bed either by soil solarization, formalin solution or formalin dust or fungicides
like thiram or captan as discussed earlier.
● Treat the seeds as discussed in seed treatment. If the disease appear after the seed emergence drench
the nursery beds with 0.1% solution of brassicol or 0.7% captan or thiram after germination. It will be better to
remove and burried the affected seedlings from the beds otherwise spread will be more. The disease can be
controlled to some extent by applying treated sand, soil and FYM mixture up to the level from where the seedlings
are falling.

Leaf miner
It is very small sized insect enter in the leaves from margin side and move from one place to other by
eating the chlorophyll. Initially the infected part of the leaves become brown and later on dry.

Control
● Spray 4% neem seed kernal extract on the plants (crush 40 g of neem seed kernal, add some water and
allow them for overnight. In the morning filter the extract and makeup the volume 1000 ml.)
● Spray Monocrotophos or Metasystox 1.5 ml/litre of water.

Raising of virus free seedlings


Leaf curl is a white fly transmitted viral disease, infestation starts from seedling stage and continue till
harvest of the crop. The disease is specially seen in the tomato and sometime in chilli too and causes great loss of
the crop.
The leaves of affected plants show curling, mottling, rolling puckering etc. It can be controlled by the following
ways:
● Treat the soil of the nursery by carbofuran 3-5 g/sqm.
● Seed treatment with Imidachloprid @ 2.5 g/kg seed
● Cover the seed bed after seed sowing by Agronet making a tunnel like structure.
● Spray the nursery beds 15 days after seed germination at 7 days interval with Metasytox or
Monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml/litre of water. Last spray is done 2 days before transplanting.
● Remove the infected plants if any in the field and burried in with soil or burn.
In this way the raised seedlings will be healthy and free from viral diseases.
Selection of seedlings for transplanting: After attaining proper growth, seedlings are transplanted in main field.
At the time of transplanting, seedling should be:
● Stocky and sturdy
● Should have good rot system
● Should be free from any insect pests and diseases.
Hardening of the plants in the nursery

The term hardening includes


"Any treatment that makes the tissues firm to withstand unfavourable environment like low temperature,
high temperature and hot dry wind."
Hardening is physiological process .Plants accumulate more carbohydrates reserves and produce additional
quiticle on the leaves. In this process seedlings are given some artificial shocks at least 7-10 days before uprooting and
transplanting. These shocks includes
● Exposure to the full sunlight,
● Removal of all the shedding nets, polythene sheets
● Irrigation is stopped slowly and slowly.

Techniques of hardening
The hardening is done by the following ways.
● By holding the watering to the plant by 4-5 days before transplanting
● Lowering the temperature also retards the growth and adds to the hardening processes.
● By application of 4000 ppm NaCl with irrigation water or by spraying of 2000 ppm of cycocel.
Duration and degrees of hardening
It is very necessary that plants should be hardened according to their kind so that there is an assurance of high
percentage of survival and slow growth under the condition to be expected at the time of transplanting. Hardening
should be gradual to prevent or check the growth.
Warm season crops like tomato, brinjal and chillies do not favour severe hardening. In Indian condition allowing the
soil to become dry for 5-6 days does the hardening.
Effect of hardening

The following effect may be observed by the hardening


● Hardening improves the quality and modifies the nature of colloids in the plant cell enabling them to resist
the loss of water.
● Hardening increases the presence of dry matter and regards in the plants but decrease the percentage of
freezable water and transpiration per unit area of leaf.
● Decreases the rate of growth in the plants
● Hardened plants can withstand better against unfavourable weather conditions like hot day winds or low
temperature
● Hardening of the plants increases the waxy covering on the leaves of cabbage.

Polybag nursery

Small polythene bags with holes punched in the bottom for drainage and filled with a porous medim are used
for propagation of

● Aonla
● Custard apple
● Bael
● Wood apple
● West Indian cherry
● Pomegranate
● Jamun
● Carissa
● Manila tamarind
● Ber
● Date palm
● Fig
● Phalsa
Sometimes, young seedlings which are raised in the nursery are subsequently transplanted in the polybags and
kept in shade net till they attain requires growth for transplanting them to the main field. The media for polybag
nursery may vary or as the same that is used for portray nursery except the coco peat . Instead of coco peat,
vermiculite is used.

Exercise:

1. Brief out the nursery preparation for horticultural crops

2. Write about hardening of plants in nursery?


Ex. No. 2 Date:

Analysis of rainfall data and its interpretation

Objectives
1. To workout the rainfall probability analysis and interpret the result.
Rainfall Analysis Classifications
Classification of rainfall based on the amount of rainfall
a) Places receiving more than 2000 mm rainfall.
b) Places receiving 1200 to 2000 mm rainfall.
c) Places receiving 750 to 1200 mm rainfall.
d) Places receiving less than 750 mm rainfall.

Variability analysis
To find out coefficient of variation first find out standard deviation using the following formula.

Standard Deviation =

Standard Deviation
Coefficient variation = -------------------------- x 100
Mean
The dependability of rainfall is normally obtained using the Coefficient of variation. The following percentage of
coefficient of variation is dependable for various periods of rainfall.
Sl. No Period Dependable CV (%) Non-Dependable CV (%)
1. Daily Rainfall <250 >250
2. Weekly Rainfall <150 >150
3. Monthly Rainfall <100 >100
4. Seasonal Rainfall <50 >50
5 Annual Rainfall <25 >25

Based on mean rainfall (Classification by IMD)


1. Normal : -19 to +19 % of the mean rainfall
2. Deficit : -20 to -59 % of the mean rainfall
3. Scanty : < -60% of the mean rainfall
4. Excess : +20 to +59 % of the mean rainfall
5. Wet : >+60 % of the mean rainfall

Initial Probability Analysis


a) Initial probability analysis
nxp
Initial probability = ---------------
100
n = number observations accounted for
p = probability level fixed
Then data set were arranged in descending order
b) Conditional probability analysis
(Mean-X)
Conditional probability =
SD
Where
X=required quantity of rainfall (mm), Mean = Mean rainfall of the particular week
SD=Standard Deviation for the week
Resultant value does not fall under normal distribution, it has to be referred to Z table and multiplied by 100 to find
out the actual probability percentage. If the value is more than 60%, it can be accounted for planting.
Two points are to be considered
1. If the resultant value of the formulae given above is positive, the corresponding value may referred in the ‘Z’ table
and multiplied by 100 for getting conditional probability in percentage.
2. If the resultant value is negative, the corresponding ‘Z’ table value is subtracted from unity and multiplied by 100.
Application in crop planning operations
1. If the interest is in land preparation then use, then probability estimates X=10 mm/week
2. If the interest is crop planning, then we use the probability estimates under X=20 mm/week
3. If the interest is in application of fertilizer and /weeding then we use the probability estimates under X=40 mm/week
4. If the interest is when not to apply fertilizer and /or pesticides/insecticides then use the probability under X=80
mm/week

Exercise

1. What do you mean by length of growing period? Give length of growing period for major horticultural crops grown
under dryland condition.
2. Workout the weekly means standard deviation and coefficient of variation, 80 % initial probability weekly rainfall
amounts and conditional probability for 40 mm for the data given below and write your comments.
Year 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Annual
1991 0.0 3.0 16.5 0 10.1 42.5 7.5 1.5 12.5 26.5 8.3 5.5 3.3 0 0 0 1 0 969
1992 0.0 1.8 0 97.6 55.6 44.9 5.7 7.5 29 14.5 66.8 162 63.6 0 8.1 0 0 0 1031
1993 36.6 3.0 7 0 1.6 30.8 30 58.3 19.3 29.1 112 125 0 1.5 17.1 0 0 0 1548
1994 5.0 12.0 0 0 33.9 37.8 6.1 32.3 161.3 119.9 48.7 20 1.6 0 0 0 1.6 0 727
1995 14.5 1.0 8.2 9.5 8 17.5 2 14.5 66 36.4 45.4 26.5 0 0 0 0 1.6 0 705
1996 0.0 0.0 8.8 0 44 3 119 75.6 0 0 0 21.4 40 0 24.5 88.2 4.5 0 1639
1997 1.0 0.0 13.7 2.8 0 41.5 52.5 18 81 136 50.2 45.2 101 32.2 21.3 5.8 10 0 1487
1998 54.0 41 2 0 73.9 2 5 0 8 103.3 213 2 0 39.6 0 122 0 0 1263
1999 0.0 0.0 0 0 28 72.3 31.9 155.4 44.5 2 64.2 0 35 6.4 0 3 10 8.8 918
2000 4.1 0.0 3.6 89.6 117 10.3 11.3 10 5.2 0 0 1.2 52.1 30.2 0 0 0 14.4 1387
Mean
SD
CV
IP80%
CP 40
Ex. No. 3 Date:

Collection and interpretation of data on temperature and evaporation

Objectives
1. To collect and interpret data on temperature and evaporation
Growing Degree Day (GDD)
The heat unit system or Growing Degree Day (GDD) concept assumes that there is a direct and linear relationship
between growth of plants and temperature. It starts with the assumption that the growth is dependent on the total amount of
heat to which it is subjected during its life time. GDD is also called as heat units, effective heat units and growth units.
A degree day or a heat unit is the departure from the mean daily temperature, above the threshold temperature of the
crop.
The GDD are calculated by the quotation.
n
GDD = ∑ {(TMax.+TMin)/2} - Tb
i=1
n
Where; =∑ (Mean temperature - Threshold temperature)
i=1

TMax = the daily maximum air temperature


TMin = the daily minimum air temperature
Tb = the GDD base temperature for the organism being monitored
It means, sum of different between mean temperature and base temperature or threshold temperature. The threshold
temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes place. This varies with different crops, generally higher values
for tropical crops and lower values for temperature crops.
Application of GDD concept
● To decide optimum sowing time of crops
● It guides various agricultural operations and planning land use
● For forecast of crop-harvest dates and yield of crops
● Applied to the problems of growth and development of insects and plant pathogens
● Applied to the selection of varieties to be grown in a new area
● To modify the microclimate to produce optimum conditions at the development cycle of an organism
● As an index for making crop zonation
● It is easy to compute and simple to use for various aspects of agriculture
Limitations of GDD
● A lot of weightage is given to high temperature although higher temperatures above 27°C may have detrimental
effects.
● The daily temperature range is not taken into consideration which is more significant than the mean daily
temperature.
● A single threshold temperature is used throughout the crop season.
● Plant, leaf or canopy temperature is more important for plant growth and development rather than the screen
temperature measured in the observatory.
● The influences of wind, hail, insects and diseases are not taken into account.
● Soil fertility may also affect the crop maturity which cannot be explained in this system.
Modifications in GDD
Along with temperature, other weather parameters also contribute to the growth and development of a crop. Hence,
GDD concept was improved and modified in order of give weightage to other weather parameters.
Photo Thermal Unit (PTU)
Nuttonson (1948) attempted to improve the GDD concept applying day length factor and using concept as photo-
thermal unit in climate analogue studies. This is calculated by multiplying GDD with maximum possible bright sunshine
hours (N).
PTU = Σ (GDD x Maximum possible bright sunshine hours)
Helio Thermal Unit (HTU)
This is calculated by multiplying GDD with actual bright sunshine hours (n) which is measured in the observatory
daily with the help of sunshine recorder.
HTU = Σ (GDD x Actual bright sunshine hours)
Heat Use Efficiency (HUE)
It has been defined as yield per day °C on growing day concept or per unit of day °C hours on helio-thermal units
indicating the efficiency with the available heat utilized for grain yields (unit: kg/ha day °C).
HUE = Yield / GDD
The photo-thermal response of following in wheat over range of environments normally experienced by the crop can
be expressed as:
Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE)
This can be calculated for the whole growing period or for defined phenol phases of crops by using the following
formula:
RUE = Yield (kg/m2) / IPAR (MJm2)
Where, IPAR is cumulative intercepted photo synthetically active radiation.
EVAPORATION
A change in the physical state of water from liquid to vapour is known as evaporation. Evaporation from surface is
influenced not only by environmental factors but also by the depth, size state of evaporating surface and surrounding etc.
There are the four main types evaporations or pans used for measuring evaporation.

Actual evapotranspiration (AE)


Evaporation is the phase change from a liquid to a gas releasing water away from a wet surface into the air above.
Similarly, transpiration represents a phase change when water is released into the air by plants. Evapotranspiration is the
combination of water released to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. Actual evapotranspiration is the amount of
water delivered to the air from these two processes.
Potential
evapotranspiration (PE)
Potential
evapotranspiration is the
amount of water that
would be evaporated
under an optimal set of
conditions, among which
is an unlimited supply of
water.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
The combined loss of water from evaporation and through transpiration is known as Evapotranspiration. For proper
water management of crops, it is necessary to know, on daily basis the return flow of water to the atmosphere from cropped
surfaces. Once we know the quantity of evapotranspiration loss the amount of water that is to be applied through irrigation
can be determined. The amount of water that is lost through evapotranspiration for a given crop depends upon its light
duration, growth and evaporative power of air. For measuring this evapotranspiration normally lysimeter is used.

Lysimeter: Lysimeter is a device for measuring ET. There are two types of lysimeters, they are namely volumetric, which is
used for paddy, and the other is gravimetric which is used in dry land crop like, maize, cotton, groundnut, sugarcane etc.

1. Volumetric Lysimeter
The volumetric lysimeter consist of mainly three tanks which are interconnected by pipe line.
1. Supply tank (ST) 2. Float chamber tank (FCT) 3. Field tank (FT)

Erection of Instrument: At the middle of the experimental field the field tank is buried over a cement platform at about 75
cm depth, while 15cm of the tank is left over the field surface. 75 cm of the tank is filled with the field soil without changing
soil profile of the field. At the end of the inlet there is provided a shower (PVC) to prevent the inflow of dust and mud into
the pipe line. The other end of inlet is connected to the T pipes of FCT by underground pipe line at a depth of 2 feet. The
FCT is buried at one end of the field such that the inlet pipe of FT and T pipe of FCT are in same level. The supply tank is
erected at an elevated position.

Functioning of Lysimeter: When the instrument is set the water level in FT and FCT are is in same line. Therefore when the
water level goes down in FT as a result of Evapotanspiration, the water level in FC also goes down Along with the float goes
down and hence the valve is opened and water flows form supply tank to field Tank though FC. When the fixed level
reached in the FT the water level rises in FC also, along with the float raises and closes the valve and water supply stopped.
This is a continuous process. When water level rises in the FT by way of Rain fall some water is taken for Evapotranspiration
and excess water flows back to FC and collected in FCT.
Measurement of ET: Since all the tanks and pipelines are leak proof the water lost by way of Evapotraspiration in the field
tank is supplied only from the supply tank. Measured quantity of water is added to the supply tank up to the index level at an
interval of 24 hours. i.e. 07 30 IST daily. This gives the ET loss in cc. This is known as inflow (IF). When there is rainfall,
excess rainwater is collected in the FCT. This is taken out and measured and is known as outflow (OF) From this inflow and
outflow and rainfall data we can calculate ET loss in mm.
Conversion Factor (F)
We get the inflow and outflow in cc. But we have to adjust it for rainfall and compared with Evaporation which is in
mm. Hence we define a conversion factor as follows:
Area of filed Tank = 120 cm x 120 cm = 14400cc.
1 mm of water in ET = 14400 x 1/10 = 1440 cc.
1440 cc. = 1 mm
1 cc. = 1/1440 mm = 0.000694 mm
i.e. CF = 0.000694.
Calculation of ET: Now ET is calculated using the formula.
ET = [(IF – OF) x CF] + RF

Model Calculation(Values of IF & OF in CC and RF, ET & EP in mm))

Date IF OF IF-OF Rainfall ET EP ET/EP Remarks


1.3.98 06000 00000 06000 00000 4.2 3.2 1.131
2.3.98 7240 00000 07240 00000 5.0 4.1 1.22
3.3.98 02620 00000 02620 003.2 5.0 4.0 1.25
4.3.98 02500 43500 41000 033.5 5.1 4.2 1.21
5.3.98 01600 09000 074000 010.5 5.4 4.5 1.20
6.3.98 Out flow Going on 091.0 - 3.6 -
7.3.98 01200 120700 119500 00000 8.1 0.0 1.23 ET for 48 hrs.

Gravimetric Lysimeters
This instrument consists of the following:
1. Weighing balance
2. Soil tank
3. Dummy tank
4. Outer tank

Selection of site of Lysimeters


A field of about 60 x 60 cm planted with a bulk crop and located in the midst of cropped area is required. Ideally, this field
should be near the meteorological observatory and surrounded by other fields having similar crop varieties which receive
similar cultural treatments.
Time of observation
Lysimeter observations have to be recorded at 07 00 hours LMT when wind is calm. The amount of water lost by last
24 hours is measured in grams. ET is calculated after adjusting for rainfall. The cumulative total of ET from sowing to
harvest give us the idea about the amount of water required for the particular crop for the particular season.
Conversion factor: ET data in gravimetric lysimeters are recorded in kg. For calculation of ET we have to adjust it
for rainfall recorded in the nearby observatory, which is in mm. Therefore ET recorded in kgs are converted in to mm by
using a conversion factor as below;
Area of soil tank = 130 x 130 cm2
Suppose there is 1cm depth of water, then volume of Water is
= 130 x 130 x 1 cm
= 16,900 cm3 =16,900 gm=16.9 kg=10 mm
so, 1kg = 10/16.90 = 0.59 mm
ie Conversion factor is 1 kg = 0.59 mm or 0.6 mm

Calculation of ET: After tabulating the lysimeter data and rainfall data, ET is calculated using the following formula
ET = (ΔW x CF) + RF
Where Δw - difference in weight; CF - Conversion factor and RF is rainfall of the day.

Tabulation of observation
The change in weight (in kg) of tanks during the period between observations should be multiplied by conversion
factor of 0.6 and corrected for rainfall during the same period as per sample given below.
Example to calculate Evapotranspiration
S. No Date Soil tank weight(kg) Change in Rainfall ET = (Δw x 0.6 )+ RF
weight(kg) (mm)
1. Day with no rain
15.6.76 1853.5 - - -
16.6.76 1851.3 2.2 0.0 1.3
2. Day when weight decreased in spite of rain
20.6.76 1851.3 - - -
21.6.76 1850.1 1.2 1.5 2.2
3. Day when weight increased due to rain
15.5.76 1851.3 - - -
16.5.76 1865.3 (-)14.0 12.0 3.6
** Loss in weight is taken as +ve
A gain in weight is taken ad -ve

EVAPORATION
A change in the physical state of water from liquid to vapour is known as evaporation. Evaporation from surface
is influenced not only by environmental factors but also by the depth, size state of evaporating surface and
surrounding etc. There are the four main types evaporations or pans used for measuring evaporation.
I. U.S.W.B. Class ‘A’ open pan evaporimeter (Mesh covered fixed point gauge)
Principle: The amount of water lost by evaporation from the free water surface in the pan at any given interval of
time is measured by adding known quantities of water to the pan and bringing it to the original level.
Operation and measurement: This is an instrument used to measure the amount of water lost by evaporation
per unit area at a given interval of time. The various of evaporation give a measure of evaporative power of the
air layers near the ground.
1. This is made up of galvanized iron/or
copper sheet of 20 gauge thickness. 10 mm
thick copper is the latest recommended
standard.
2. The pan of the evaporimeter is 122 cm in
diameter and 25.5 cm in deep. It is painted
white and is covered with a lid of hexagonal
mesh to protect the water from birds and
squirrels.
3. This is used to measure the rate of
evaporation mm/day with a precision of
0.1mm.
4. Water level in this application should be
maintained upto 20 centimeters.
5. In order to provide undisturbed water
surface, a still-well is used. It is kept in the
pan at the based and is provided with 3
small
openings (120 degrees apart) at its bottom so that the water level of the pan corresponds to that of still-well.
6. The reference point is provided by the brass rod, fixed at the centre of the still-well and is
tampered to end at a point exactly 190 mm above the base of the pan.
7. Measured quantities of water is added or removed to bring the back the level of water to its
original position.
8. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the equation
a. Volume =Area x Depth.
9. A hook gauge is used for measuring rate of evaporation. It works on the principle of screw
gauge and the least count is 0.1 mm.
10. The pan rests on a wooden platform which is painted white and placed about 3 to 4 inches
above the ground surface. This allows free circulation of air and also to detect leakages, if any.
11. A thermometer to measure the temperature of the water is fixed with a clamp to the side of the
pan so that the bulb dips 5 cm below the water surface.
12. If rain is there, the water level in the pan increases. So, water has to be removed to bring back
its level to original position.
13. After knowing the depth of water it is easy to find evaporation (if any) as the depth of the
rainfall is already known the rain gauge.
14. The measuring cylinder is a brass container with scale ranging from 0-20 cm. The diameter is
exactly one tenth that of the pan i.e 122 mm, which means the cross sectional area of the
cylinder is exactly one hundredth that of the pan. So, 200 mm of water from the cylinder added
to the pan will raise that level of water in the pan by 2 mm.
15. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan divided by the time interval gives the
rate of evaporation.
16. Since the capacity of cylinder is only 20 cm, cylinder has to be filled more than once if over 2
mm of water is lost by evaporation.
17. Observations with evaporimeter should be taken twice a day at 0830 and 1430 hours IST and
the readings are cumulated and expressed as evaporation mm/day.
18. The observations are to taken as detailed below.
a) Read the thermometer just immersed in the water.
b) When water level is below the reference point, add water to the evaporimeter using the
measuring cylinder.
c) Add water until the tip of the fixed point equals the surface of the water in the still-well.
d) For example, one full cylinder and 10 cm .i.e., 30 cm or 300 mm of the water is added to
the pan. This divided by 100 i.e. 3.0 mm is the amount of water lost by evaporation from
the pan, if no rainfall occurred since the last observation.
e) On a rainy day, if the amount of water taken out to bring the level equal to point is 38 cm,
the difference as per the above calibration in the description is 3.8 mm. If the rainfall is 5.7
mm during the day, then the evaporation is 5.7 – 3.8 =1.9 mm.
f) When there is light rain, and the water level may not rise, then procedure to be followed is
like this. If 20 cm of water is added to the pan (i.e. 2.0 mm after calibration) and rainfall is
1.2 mm, then the actual evaporation is 2.0 + 1.2 = 3.2mm.

Situation I: On a normal day


On a normal day water evaporates from “AA” and the level comes to “BB”. Under this
situation known quantity of water has to be added into the pan with the help of a
measuring cylinder till the water level comes to “AA”. For example, if the water added to
the pan is 4 cans, then the evaporation is equal to 8 mm (1 can of water = 2 mm). Can
height is 20 cm.

Situation II: On a slight rainy day


The rain fallen into the pan has to be accounted for. On a normal day water evaporates
from “AA” and the level comes to “BB”. Whereas on a slight rainy day, the rainwater is
added and the level of water in the pan increases to “CC”. Under this situation, known
quantity of water has to be added into the pan with help of a measuring cylinder till the
water level comes to “AA” and the evaporation is calculated as follows:
The water added to the pan is 3 cans = 6 mm The amount of
rainfall received = 4 mm Then the Evaporation = 6 + 4 = 10
mm
Situation III: On a heavy rainy day
On a heavy rainy day the rainwater is added and the level of water in the pan increases to
“DD” i.e. above the level of the pointer. Under this situation, known quantity of water has
to be removed from the pan with the help of a measuring cylinder till the water level
comes to “AA” and the evaporation is calculated as follows:

The water removed from the pan is 2 cans = 4 mm The amount of


rainfall received = 10 mm
Then the Evaporation = 10 - 4 = 6 mm

Situation IV: On a very heavy rainy day


Under this situation the water will overflow from the pan. There is no known method available to measure the
evaporation under this condition. In the record, to indicate the situation, put it as OFF.

19. Precautions to be taken include:


a) Repairs for nay leaks must be attended as and when noticed.
b) Clean the pan and stilling well regularly.
c) Paint the evaporimeter with white enamel paint every year.
d) Use lemon juice to remove white deposits on the bulb of the thermometer.

II. Sunken screen evaporimeter

Principle: A still-well is attached to the evaporimeter through a connecting tube. The whole instrument is buried
into the ground. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed to indicate the evaporation.

Operation and measurement: This instrument comes under the category of sunken pans.
1. This is developed by Dr. Sharma and Dastane in the year 1966 at Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
2. This is very useful in agro-meteorology observatories and is more dependable than other
instrument
3. The pan of this evaporimeter is made up of galvanized
iron sheet of 20 gauge thickness.
4. It has a diameter of 60 centimeters and depth of 45
centimeters.
5. A still-well with 15 centimeters diameter and 45
centimeters depth is attached to the pan through a
connecting tube.
6. This evaporimeter is painted white throughout.
7. Both the pan and still-well are covered with a lid of
hexagonal mesh.
8. Water level in this evaporimeter is maintained upto
35 centimeters from the bottom of the pan.
9. A pointer, attached to the wall of still-well and bent
upwards at right angles to the well, is used to maintain the water level.
10. The tip of the pointer is at a height of 35 centimeters from the bottom. The
whole instrument is buried into the ground upto a depth of 35 centimeters.
11. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed to bring back the
level of water to its original position.
12. The rate of evaporation is determined by
using the same equation
Volume = Area x depth.
Calibrated charts are also available for ready reference

Exercise
1. Document the threshold temperature for the major horticultural crops.
2. Workout the different heat unit requirements up to vegetative stage of chillies and coriander and
give your critical comments.
3. Discuss the use of Evaporation data in irrigation scheduling.
I. Maximum and minimum temperature, day length and bright sunshine hours of chillies
Day Mean
Crop stage Date Max T. Min T. SS GDD PTU HTU
hrs. Temp.
Seedling Jan 04 28.5 17.8 11.22 7.2
05 30.0 20.8 11.23 8.1
06 30.5 22.0 11.23 6.7
07 30.0 20.0 11.23 8.8
08 30.0 22.0 11.24 4.6
09 30.0 22.0 11.24 3.2
10 30.0 22.0 11.25 9.2
11 29.0 19.0 11.24 9.2
12 29.5 19.4 11.25 9.0
13 30.2 16.0 11.25 7.1
14 29.5 13.5 11.26 9.7
15 29.0 13.5 11.25 9.5
16 29.5 13.5 11.26 7.7
17 29.5 15.0 11.27 7.3
18 29.5 16.5 11.27 9.3
19 31.0 19.0 11.28 6.3
20 30.5 19.8 11.28 8.7
21 31.5 21.6 11.29 6.4
22 31.5 23.4 11.29 8.8
23 30.5 23.0 11.3 5.8
Total
Peak 24 32.5 18.8 11.3 2.9
vegetative
25 33.0 20.0 11.31 3.6
26 33.0 20.0 11.31 2.9
27 31.5 21.0 11.32 4.9
28 30.0 20.8 11.32 5.9
29 29.0 19.5 11.32 2.9
30 32.5 19.5 11.33 4.0
31 31.0 18.2 11.33 0.3
Feb 01 29.8 19.5 11.34 3.4
02 32.5 21.2 11.35 0.7
03 27.2 21.7 11.36 4.1
04 25.8 21.0 11.36 5.7
05 27.0 22.4 11.36 6.5
06 30.5 22.4 11.37 8.4
07 30.5 22.5 11.38 10.0
08 30.0 22.0 11.38 8.4
09 30.5 21.5 11.39 10.0
10 30.0 18.4 11.39 9.7
11 30.0 18.0 11.4 10.0
12 32.0 22.3 11.41 10.0
13 31.0 20.0 11.41 9.8
Total
II. Maximum and minimum temperature, day length and bright sunshine hours of coriander
Mean
Crop stage Date Max T. Min T. Day hrs. SS GDD PTU HTU
Temp.
Vegetative June 19 34..0 22.0 12.53 8.0
20 29.5 24.5 12.53 10.0
21 30.0 24.5 12.53 7.9
22 32.7 25.3 12.54 5.6
23 30.7 25.0 12.53 2.8
24 32.0 25.5 12.53 6.6
25 30.0 24.5 12.53 10.0
26 32.0 24.5 12.53 6.1
27 32.0 24.0 12.54 8.0
28 34.5 22.0 12.53 0.9
29 34.0 24.5 12.53 4.5
30 34.5 22.5 12.53 2.0
July 01 34.0 22.5 12.52 4.0
02 33.5 23.4 12.52 8.0
03 32.0 23.5 12.52 6.4
04 34.0 23.5 12.52 11.0
05 34.5 23.0 12.51 0
06 32.5 22.5 12.52 3.7
07 34.5 22.5 12.52 2.8
08 33.5 22.4 12.52 2.0
Total
Peak July 09 33.0 20.5 12.51 2.7
vegetative
10 33.5 24.0 12.51 4.0
11 33.0 23.5 12.51 0
12 31.5 23.0 12.5 6.5
13 30.0 22.8 12.5 7.5
14 33.5 22.0 12.5 6.2
15 33.0 22.0 12.49 3.1
16 33.5 25.0 12.48 3.5
17 33.0 22.6 12.48 4.8
18 32.0 23.2 12.48 7.1
19 33.5 22.7 12.47 7.8
20 33.2 22.4 12.47 5.5
21 33.0 23.3 12.47 9.0
22 32.5 22.5 12.47 11.0
23 32.5 21.5 12.45 11.0
24 32.7 22.0 12.45 9.4
25 34.0 22.5 12.45 6.2
26 31.6 21.4 12.45 4.2
27 34.0 20.8 12.43 0
28 33.0 22.5 12.43 7.9
29 30.5 22.4 12.43 8.1
30 31.0 22.0 12.43 5.5
Total
Ex. No. 4 Date:

Study of Dryfarming implements

Objectives
1. To study the usage of implements used in dryland farming
Farm machinery and implements help in increasing the utilization of labour and
increasing the area under intensive and multiple cropping. Following are the some of labour
saving implements widely used in rainfed farming.

Improved iron plough Bullock drawn, suitable for all types of soils, coverage is 0.5 ha/day
Chisel plough Deep tillage upto a depth of 40 cm is possible. The coverage is 0.42
ha/hr, when operated at a spacing of 1.5 m between rows
Power tiller operated Alternate furrows and ridges are formed. The size of the basin
basin lister formed is 120 x 30 x 15 cm. The distance between the basins is 45
cm. The coverage is 0.25 ha/day
Combined tillage bed Combination of primary and secondary tillage operations ensures
furrow former timeliness in seedbed preparation. It is a tractor drawn implement.
Cost of operation is 47 per cent less and energy consumption is less
by 39 per cent compared to that of mould board ploughing followed
by cultivator tilling

Improved iron plough


This is a bullock drawn improved iron plough made of mild steel except the pole shaft.
As and when the share wears off, it can be pushed forward. Pole shaft angle and height of handle
can be adjusted according to field requirements. The plough is provided with a mould optional
attachment for soil inversion. The improved iron plough is suitable for dry ploughing in all type
of soil. A pair of bullocks can operate it. It can cover an area of 0.5 ha per day.

Chisel plough
Deep tillage using chisel plough is essential for improving the yield of crop especially
under dry farming. Deep tillage shatters compact sub soil layers and aids in better infiltration and
storage of rainwater in the crop root zone. The improved soil structure also results in better
development of root system and the yield of crops and their drought tolerance is also improved.
Summer fallow ploughing using chisel plough prepares the field for better uptake of rainwater
and soil erosion is minimized. Deep tillage requires high draft requirement especially when the
soil is dry and in a state most favourable for chiseling. The cost of the implement is Rs.5000.
Cost of chiseling using this implement is Rs.265/ha.

Line sowing or drill sowing


Sowing crops in lines parallel to one another has been in vogue from very early times in
Andhra Pradesh. It is done with indigenous seed drills called "gorrus". The distribution of seeds
is regulated by releasing seeds in small quantities in the seed hopper with human labour. Line
sowing of crops is now done with mechanical seed drills, where the distribution of seed is done
by suitable contrivances.
Advantages
1. Seeds are deposited at a uniform depth enabling uniform germination.
2. Less seed rate is required.
3. Less labour is required.
4. Larger area can be sown with the drills at the appropriate season.

Disadvantages
1. The seed drills can be used only when the soil is in a good friable condition
2. Clear weather is required before sowing can be taken up.

Bullock drawn seed planter


The implement can be hitched to a pair of animals easily as in the case of country plough.
The cost of the unit is Rs. 3500. It is useful for line sowing of crops like groundnut, sorghum,
cowpea, Bengal gram, green gram and black gram. The capacity of the unit is 1 ha / day. The
seed planter is suitable for rainfed areas where sowing is to be completed with in a short period.

Tractor drawn seed planter


It is tractor drawn equipment used for line sowing of crops like groundnut, sorghum,
maize and pulses. Seed boxes along with cup feed type seed metering mechanism are mounted
on the cultivator frame and the seeds are dropped in furrows opened by the cultivator shovels.
Detachable side wings are fixed to the existing shovel type furrow openers of the cultivator,
which, helps in placing the seed at the required depth. Coverage of the unit is 4 ha/day.

Power tiller operated basin lister


Listing is the process of formation of alternate furrows and ridges on land to conserve
soil and moisture. Hence a basin lister has been developed for use with power tillers in dry
farming. The principle of operation of the equipment is that the basin listing is done by lifting the
furrower through a cam and follower arrangement. The cam is mounted to the power tiller wheel
axle and oscillates; the ‘U’ shaped follower frame hinged at the front of the power tiller chassis
on both the sides. For uniform penetration, a dead weight box is also attached to cam follower
frame. The size of the basin formed is 120 x 30 x 15 cm and the coverage is 0.25 ha per day. The
distance between the basins is 45 cm. The cost of the unit is Rs.4,000. The salient features
include simple and easy to mount and dismantle; aids in conservation of soil moisture at deeper
depths for better plant growth and increases the crop yield by 150 kg/ha.

Combined tillage bed furrow former


The concept of reduced tillage is becoming importance to eliminate the effect of
compaction due to repeated operations in the soil. With a view to combine the primary and
secondary tillage operations, to utilize the negative draft produced by the rotary tools and to
conserve moisture by forming furrows, a combination tillage bed furrow former was developed
which ensures timeliness in seed bed preparation
The performance of the developed unit was evaluated in black clay loam and red loam
soils. The performance was compared with mould board plough + cultivator, mould plough +
cultivator + disc harrow, mould board plough + power tiller for tillage operations. The
percentage of fine soil particles of less than 3.5 mm were more in the combination tillage bed
furrow former treatment. It was 43.5 per cent in black clay loam and 52.5 per cent in red loam
soil. The bulk density was minimum in the plots tilled with combination tillage bed furrow
former. It was 15.4 and 20.1 per cent less in black clay loam and red loam soils respectively
when compared to mould board plough + cultivator treatment. The tillage with combination
tillage bed furrow former induced a better infiltration rate when compared to other treatments.
With the combination tillage bed furrow former, the cost of operation is 47.22 per cent less and
the energy consumption is 39 per cent less.

Tractor drawn basin lister


The basin lister consists of three trenchers of width 30 cm, cams, camshaft, cam follower,
ground wheels and frame. The penetrating portion of the trencher bottoms is provided with a
replaceable share point. The cams lift each trencher fitted with a cam follower up at equal
intervals. The cams are mounted on a common axle at 120 degree difference and supported by
ground wheels. The power to rotate the cam is transmitted from one of the ground wheels. To
reduce wheel slippage, spring tension has been provided. The basin lister unit is attached to the
standard nine tyned cultivator. The seed box along with cup feed type seed metering mechanism
is mounted on the cultivator frame and the seeds are dropped in between the basins. Seeds are
sown in 4 rows at 45 cm apart. Power to operate the seed metering discs is taken from the ground
wheel through a clutch. Changing the sprockets provided in the metering shaft can change the
seed to seed distance. The operator can stop the dropping of the seeds by disengaging the clutch
provided.
Broad bed and furrow
In a broadbed-and-furrow system, runoff water is diverted into field furrows (30 cm wide
and 30 cm deep). The field furrows are blocked at the lower end. When one furrow is full, the
water backs up into the head furrow and flows into the next field furrow. Between the field
furrows are broad beds about 170 cm wide, where crops are grown. Approximate cost for laying
beds and furrows is Rs. 1000/- per ha.
Function
● To control erosion and to conserve soil moisture in the soil during rainy days
● It is suitable when the slope of the land is < 3%
● The broad bed and furrow system is laid within the field boundaries.
● The land levels taken and it is laid using either animal drawn or tractor drawn
ridgers.
● Conserves soil moisture in dryland
● Controls soil erosion.
● Acts as a drainage channel during heavy rainy days.
Broad bed former cum seeder
The same implement can be used to form broad beds separated by furrows by removing
the basin lister attachment from the cultivator. The unit consists of two sheet metal floats fixed
on both sides of the cultivator tynes to form the broad beds separated by furrows at intervals of
180 cm. The salient features include the basins/ broad beds and furrows formed at regular
intervals prior to the sowing of crop in dry farming conserve adequate soil moisture for the
utilization of crop at its critical stages; increased moisture retention of 10 per cent is achieved;
significant increase in yield is observed in both main and inter crop; an area of 3.5 ha can be
covered per day. The cost of the unit is Rs. 15000 (without cultivator).

Exercise

1. Explain in detail about the advantages of mechanization under dryland condition.

2. List out the implements used in dryland farming.


Ex. No. 5 Date:

Study of agronomic measures of soil and moisture conservation

Objectives
1. To study the agronomic measures of soil and moisture conservation

• Storage of rainfall in soil at the place where it falls is termed as "insitu" soil moisture
conservation.
• It aims at increasing infiltration of rainfall into the soil and reducing runoff loss of
rainwater.

Insitu soil moisture conservation can be accomplished through.


⮚ Cultural /agronomic methods
⮚ Mechanical methods
⮚ Agrostological / biological methods

Extent of soil moisture storage from rainfall is influenced quantity and intensity of rainfall, slope,
soil properties such as texture, structure, depth, surface characters, presence of sub soil hard
pans, rate of infiltration and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc.

INSITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION


Cultural/ agronomical Mechanical Agrostological
Addition of organic matter Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping
Summer ploughing, furrows, Tie ridging, Random tie with grasses, Ley farming,
mulching cultivation, strip ridging, Broad bed furrow, Dead Vegetative barriers
cropping furrow, Furrows after crop
establishment

1. Cultural /Agronomical methods


i) Addition of organic matter: By improving soil physical properties and WHC
ii) Off season/summer tillage: Plough furrows can hold water in the depressions and
thereby increase the infiltration. When done across the slope, the plough furrows
check runoff, reduce the velocity of runoff water and improve storage. Summer
tillage is a traditional practice helps in the storage of pre-sowing rainfall. When
ploughing is done along contour it is termed as contour ploughing and is more helpful
for in situ moisture conservation. Summer ploughing also helps in control of
perennial weeds, pest control and enables early sowing with onset of rains.
Experimental results at Kovilpatti indicated that summer ploughing with disc plough
had increased infiltration rate to 5.8 mm per hour over fallow field where infiltration
was only 2.9 mm per hour.

iii) Contour farming: Ploughing along the contour and sowing reduce soil erosion and
reduce runoff. Jowar sown in the black soils on contour line restricts the run off to
13.7% of the total rainfall and soil loss to 2.4 t/ha/year
iv) Cover crops: Erosion reduced if the land surface is fully covered with foliage (Eg.)
- Black gram, green gram, Groundnut
- Fodder grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus glaucus, Dinanath grass,
Marvel grass. Both contour cropping and cover cropping can be practiced
when the slope is less than 2 per cent.
v) Mixed cropping: Mixed cropping, also known as polyculture, inter-cropping, or co-
cultivation, is a type of agriculture that involves planting two or more plants
simultaneously in the same field, interdigitating the crops
vi) Inter cropping : Intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously
on the same field. It also means the growing of two or more crops on the same field
with the planting of the second crop after the first one has completed its development.
The rationale behind intercropping is that the different crops planted are unlikely to
share the same insect pests and diseased-causing pathogens and to conserve the soil.
Types of intercropping practices
● Mixed or multiple cropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on
the same field without a row arrangement.
● Relay cropping is the growing of two or more crops on the same field with the
planting of the second crop after the first one has completed its development.
● Row intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same
field with a row arrangement.
● Strip cropping is the cultivation of different crops in alternate strips of uniform width
and on the same field. It has two types; contour strip cropping and field strip
cropping. Contour strip cropping follows a layout of a definite rotational sequence
and the tillage is held closely to the exact contour of the field. Field strip cropping has
strips with uniform width that follows across the general slope of the land.
Advantages
Reduces the insect/mite pest populations because of the diversity of the crops grown.
When other crops are present in the field, the insect/mite pests are confused and they need
more time to look for their favorite plants. Reduces the plant diseases. The distance between
plants of the same species is increased because other crops (belonging to a different family
group) are planted in between. Reduces hillside erosion and protects topsoil, especially the
contour strip cropping. Attracts more beneficial insects, especially when flowering crops are
included the cropping system. Minimizes labor cost on the control of weeds. A mixture of
various crops gives often a better coverage of the soil leaving less space for the development
of weeds. Utilizes the farm area more efficiently.
Results in potential increase for total production and farm profitability than when the same
crops are grown separately. Provides two or more different food crops for the farm family in
one cropping season.

vii) Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of an area of soil.
viii) Strip cropping: Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion
permitting crops in alternate strips of 2-3 m width across slope and along the contour.
Erosion resistant crops include grasses and legumes with rapid canopy development.
(e.g) Cenchrus glaucus + Stylosanthes hamate
2.Mechanical methods of soil moisture conservation
The basic principle involved
✧ shaping the land surface manually or with implements in such a way as to reduce the
velocity of runoff,
✧ to allow more time for rainfall to stand on soil surface and
✧ to facilitate more infiltration of rainfall into soil layers
Choice of any particular method under a given situation is influenced by rainfall characters soil
type, crops, sowing methods and slope of land.
i) Basin listing: Formation of small depressions (basins) of 10-15 cm depth and 10-15 cm width
at regular intervals using an implement called basin lister. The small basins collect rainfall and
improve its storage. It is usually done before sowing. It is suitable for all soil types and crops.
ii) Bunding: Formation of narrow based or broad based bunds across slope at suitable intervals
depending on slope of field. The bunds check the free flow of runoff water, impound the
rainwater in the inter-bund space, increase its infiltration and improve soil moisture storage.
Leveling of inter-bund space is essential to ensure uniform spread of water and avoid water
stagnation in patches. It can be classified into three types
Contour bunding
Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed along the
contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The inter-bund surface is
leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils with slope less than 1 %. It is not
suitable for heavy black soils with low infiltration where bunds tend to develop cracks on drying.
Contour bunds are permanent structures and requires technical assistance and heavy investment.
Graded/ field bunding
Bunds of 30-45 cm basal width, and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope at suitable
intervals of 20-30 m depending on slope. The inter-bund area is leveled and cropped. It is
suitable for medium deep to deep red soils with slopes upto 1%. It is not suitable for black soils
due to susceptibility to cracking and breaching. Bunds can be maintained for 2-3 seasons with
reshaping as and when required.
Compartmental bunding
Small bunds of 15 cm width and 15 cm height are formed in both directions (along and
across slope) to divide the field into small basins or compartments of 40 sq m size (8 x 5 m). It
is suitable for red soils and black soils with a slope of 0.5 to 1%. The bunds can be formed
before sowing or immediately after sowing with local wooden plough. It is highly suitable for
broadcast sown crops. CRIDA has recommended this method as the best insitu soil moisture
conservation measure for Kovilpatti. Maize, sunflower, sorghum perform well in this type of
bunding.
iii) Ridges and furrows
Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The furrows
guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect
and store water when rainfall intensity is less. It is suitable for medium deep to deep black soils
and deep red soils. It can be practised in wide row spaced crops like cotton, maize, chillies,
tomato etc. It is not suitable for shallow red soils, shallow black soils and sandy/ gravelly soils.
It is not suitable for broadcast sown crops and for crops sown at closer row spacing less than 30
cm. Since furrows are formed usually before sowing, sowing by dibbling or planting alone is
possible.
Tie ridging is a modification of the above system of ridges and furrows where in the
ridges are connected or tied by a small bund at 2-3 m interval along the furrows.
Random tie ridging is another modification where discontinuous furrows of 20-25 cm
width, 45-60 cm length and 15 cm depth are formed between clumps or hills of crops at the time
of weeding.
Yet another modification of ridges and furrows method is the practice of sowing in lines
on flat beds and formation of furrows between crop rows at 25 - 30 days after sowing. This
enables sowing behind plough or through seed drill.
iv) Broad bed furrow (BBF)
Here beds of 1.5 m width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed, separated by
furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at required intervals. It is
suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Broad
bed furrow has many advantages over other methods.

☺ It can accommodate a wide range of crop geometry i.e close as well as wide row spacing.
☺ It is suitable for both sole cropping and intercropping systems.
☺ Furrows serve to safely guide runoff water in the early part of rainy season and store rain
water in the later stages.
☺ Sowing can be done with seed drills.
☺ It can be formed by bullock drawn or tractor drawn implements. Bed former cum seed drill
enables BBF formation and sowing simultaneously, thus reducing the delay between rainfall
receipt and sowing.
v) Dead furrow
At the time of sowing or immediately after sowing, deep furrows of 20 cm depth are
formed at intervals of 6-8 rows of crops. No crop is raised in the furrow. Sowing and furrowing
are done across slope. It can be done with wooden plough in both black and red soils.

3. Agrostological methods
The use of grasses to control soil erosion, reduce run off and improve soil moisture
storage constitutes the agrostological method. Grasses with their close canopy cover over soil
surface and profuse root system which binds soil particles provide excellent protection against
runoff and erosion. The following are the various agrostological methods of insitu moisture
conservation.
i) Pastures / grass lands
Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended for shallow
gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces splash erosion, checks
runoff and improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.
ii) Strip cropping with grasses
Alternate strips of grasses and annual field crops arranged across slope check runoff and
erosion and help in increasing moisture storage in soil.
iii) Ley farming
It is the practice of growing fodder grasses and legumes and annual crops in rotation. Grasses
and legumes like Cenchrus, stylo are grown for 3-5 years and followed by annual crops like
sorghum for 2 year. When the field is under grasses or legumes, soil moisture conservation is
improved.
iv) Vegetative barriers
Vegetative barrier consists of one or two rows of perennial grasses established at suitable
interval across the slope and along the contour. It serves as a block to free runoff and soil
transport. Vettiver, Cenchrus etc are suitable grasses for this purpose.
Vettiver can be planted in rows at intervals of 40 m in 0.5% slope. Plough furrows are
opened with disc plough first before commencement of monsoon. 5-8 cm deep holes are formed
at 20cm interval and two slips per hole are planted in the beginning of rainy season. The soil
around the roots is compacted. Vettiver barriers check runoff and prevent soil erosion. While
they retain the soil they allow excess runoff to flow through their canopy without soil loss. It is
adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. It does not exhibit any border effect
on crops in adjacent rows.

� It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant
stand thus increasing yield of a crop by 10-15%
� Facilitates better storage of soil moisture
� If fodder grasses like Cenchrus glaucus or marvel grass are used, fodder can also be
harvested and given to the animal
� Vegetative barriers are best suited for black soil. Unlike contour bunding which give
way due to development of crack in summer in black soils vegetative barriers do not
allow such phenomenon in black soil. Hence the vegetative barriers can be effectively
maintained in black soil for 4-5 years
� After 4-5 years, replanting material can also be had from the old barrier by 'quartering'

Methods of Soil Moisture Maintenance


They are grouped as follows:
a) By adapting proper tillage
b) Control of run off water and soil erosion
c) Recycling of rain water
d) Reducing loss soil moisture by mulching and anti-transpirants
e) By increased rain fall use efficiency
Tillage in relation to soil moisture conservation
Tillage may be described as the Practice of modifying the state of the soil in order to
provide conditions favourable to crop growth, (Cuplin, 1986). The objectives of tillage in
drylands are;
(1) Develop desired soil structure for a seed bed which allows rapid infiltration and good
retention of rainfall.
(2) Minimize soil erosion by following practices as contour tillage, tillage across the slope etc.
(3) Control weeds and remove unwanted crop plants.
(4) Manage crop residues, through mixing of trash is desirable for achieving good tilth and
decomposition of residues. However, the retention of trash on top layers is also useful in
reducing erosion. On the other hand, complete coverage of residues sometimes
necessitates control of insects or to prevent interference with precision planting operations.
(5) Obtain specific soil configurations for in- situ moisture conservation, drainage, planting
etc.
(6) Incorporate and mix manures, fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the soil.
(7) Accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to another, removal of rocks or root
harvesting.
Hence, attention must be paid to the depth of tillage, time of tillage, direction of tillage
and intensity of tillage.
a) Depth of tillage
Deep tillage of 25-30 cm is beneficial for deep heavy clay soils to improve permeability and to
close cracks formed while drying. In soils with hard pans, deep tillage once in 2-3 years with
chisel plough upto 35-45 cm depth at 60-120 cm interval will increase effective depth for rooting
and moisture storage. Deep tillage is preferable for cotton, redgram and other deep rooted crops.
It is not to be recommended for shallow, gravelly, light textured soils.
Medium deep tillage of 15-20 cm depth is generally sufficient for most soils and crops. It is
recommended for medium deep soils, shallow rooted crops, soils with pan free horizon and for
stubble incorporation.
Shallow tillage upto 10cm is followed in light textured soils, and shallow soils and in soils
highly susceptible to erosion. In soils prone for surface crusting, shallow surface stirring or
shallow harrowing is useful.
Depth of tillage and crop yield
Crop Yield q ha-1
Shallow tillage Deep tillage
Pigeon pea 9.0 11.7
Pearl millet 12.0 15.4
Groundnut 4.2 5.4
Maize 24.3 47.8

As depth of tillage increases, soil moisture storage from rainfall also increases from about
7-8 % with shallow tillage to 9-10% with medium deep tillage and 11-12% with deep tillage.
b) Time of tillage
Early completion of tillage is often helpful to enable sowing immediately after rainfall
and before the soil dries up. Summer tillage or off-season tillage done with preseason rainfall
causes more conservation of moisture and also enables early and timely sowing. It is particularly
useful for pre-monsoon sowing.
Effect of summer tillage on crop yield
Tillage Sorghum yield q ha-1
Normal rainfall Above normal Below normal
rainfall rainfall
No summer tillage 9.1 14.6 4.9
Summer tillage 14.3 19.3 12.4

c) Direction of tillage
For moisture conservation, ploughing across slope or along contour is very effective.
Plough furrows check the velocity of runoff, promote more infiltration when water stagnates in
the depressions caused by plough furrows and improves soil moisture storage.
d) Intensity of tillage
It refers to the number of times tillage is done. Frequent ploughing in shallow light
textured soils will pulverize the soils into fine dust and increase the susceptibility to erosion. In
heavy soils, leaving the land in a rough and cloddy stage prior to sowing is useful for more
depression storage.
The concept of minimal tillage is also practiced in dry lands. Here tillage is confined to
seeding zone only and the inter-space is not tilled. It not only saves time, energy and cost but
also helps moisture conservation. The practice of "set line cultivation" adopted in some dry
regions is an example of minimum tillage. Here the seed row space is fixed and season after
season, tillage is done only in this seeding strip. The intervening strip is not tilled.
Modern concept of Tillage
In dry lands, rainfall is received simultaneously over a large area. In order to ensure
timely sowing before soil dries up, the interval between land preparations and sowing must be
narrowed down. This calls for completion of tillage over a large area in quick time. Dependence
on bullock power and traditional wooden plough may not help in this regard. Use of more
efficient tillage implements and mechanization of tillage operations are warranted.
Tillage in drylands also encompasses land shaping for insitu soil moisture conservation.
Implements that can carryout tillage and land shaping in one single operation will help in saving
time and cost. If land preparation, land shaping and sowing can be done in one single operation
it can save considerable time. This is termed as once over tillage, plough planting or
conservation tillage. Suitable tractor drawn machinery like a broad bed former cum seeder,
Basin lister cum seeder which can complete the land shaping and sowing simultaneously can be
used.
a. minimum/optimum/reduced tillage
b. conservation/mulch tillage
c. zero tillage
a. Minimum/optimum/reduced tillage
The objectives of these systems include (a) reducing energy input and labour requirement
for crop production (b) conserving soil moisture and reducing erosion (c) providing optimum
seedbed rather than homogenising the entire soil surface, and (d) keeping field compaction to
minimum.
b. Conservation/mulch tillage
The objectives are to achieve soil and water conservation and energy conservation
through reduced tillage operations. Both systems usually leave crop residue on the surface and
each operation is planned to maintain continuous soil coverage by residue or growing plants.
The conservation tillage practices may advance some of the goals of alternative farming such as
increasing organic matter in soil and reducing soil erosion, but some conservation tillage
practices may increase the need for pesticides. Conservation tillage changes soil properties in
ways that affect plant growth, and reduce water runoff from fields. The mulched soil is cooler
and soil surface under the residue is moist, as a result many conservation tillage systems have
been successful.
c. Zero tillage or no-till system
In the crop residue is usually shredded and planting is done without pre tillage. No till
planting has problem of adequate weed control.
Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind and water)
Detachment and transport of soil and soil material caused by water and wind are widely
prevalent in dry farming regions. Erosion takes place in both red soils and black soils. Effect of
runoff and erosion on soil moisture retention
♦ Runoff leads to wastage of rainfall.
♦ Under unchecked conditions, even up to 40% of rainfall may be lost as runoff.
♦ Even when moisture conservation practices are adopted, about 10-20% of rainfall may be lost
as runoff because of high intensity rainfall.
♦ Erosion removes top soil and exposes hard impermeable sub soil, increasing the chances of
more run off.
♦ Erosion adversely affects soil physical properties such as loss of structure reduced
infiltration, soil depth and soil moisture storage capacity.
Loss of top soil through erosion leads to loss of plant nutrients and poor soil fertility
Exercise

1. Write about the agronomic measures of soil and moisture conservation.

2. Explain about different types of mulches for soil moisture conservation in dryland condition.
Ex. No. 6 Date:

Study of mulches and Antitranspirants

Objectives
1. To study the use of mulches and antitranspirants in dryland farming
Mulches
About 60 to 75 per cent of the rainfall is lost through evaporation. These evaporation
losses can be reduced by applying mulches. Mulch is any material applied on the soil surface to
check evaporation and improve soil water. Application of mulches results in additional benefits
like soil conservation, moderation of temperature, reduction in soil salinity, weed control and
improvement of soil structure.
Types of mulches
Soil mulch or dust mulch:
If the surface of the soil is loosened, it acts as a mulch for reducing evaporation. This
loose surface soil is called soil mulch or dust mulch. Intercultivation creates soil mulch in a
growing crop.
Stubble mulch
Crop residues like wheat straw or cotton stalks etc., are left on the soil surface as a
stubble mulch. The advantages of stubble mulch farming are protection of soil from erosion and
reduction of evaporation losses.
Straw mulch
If straw is used as mulch, it is called as straw mulch.
Plastic mulch
Plastic materials like polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are also used as mulching
materials.
Vertical mulching
To improve infiltration and storage of rainwater in these soils, vertical mulches are
formed. It consists of digging narrow trenches across the slope at intervals and placing the straw
or crop residues in these trenches. The pruned plant material is placed in contour trenches formed
between rows or in trenches around the plants in concentric circles each year in one circle.
Measures to reduce transpiration loss
Though transpiration is necessary and unavoidable evil, excessive transpiration has to be
controlled especially when soil moisture stress develops during critical stages of crop growth.
The rate of transpiration is governed by
⌖ Soil moisture potential
⌖ Atmospheric water demand
⌖ Plant canopy characters such as leaf area, leaf orientation, stomatal resistance, etc.
Transpiration loss can be reduced by the use of antitranspirants and by some cultural
methods also.
Antitranspirants
Antitranspirants are substances or chemicals applied on plant-foliage to control rate of
transpiration. The important point to be considered in using antitranspirants are;
● They should restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis, and
● Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by
the application of antitranspirants leading to raise in leaf temperature.
Based on their mechanism of action, antitranspirants are classified into various types.
1. Stomatal closing type: They cause partial or complete closure of stomata by inducing the
guard cells to close. But complete closure of stomata adversely affects gas exchange and
photosynthesis. These chemicals may also cause phyto-toxicity and are very expensive too.
Eg. Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA), alkanyl succinic acid (ASA).
2. Film forming type: They cover the stomata by forming a thin film over leaf surface. These
substances are nontoxic, non degradable and very easy to apply but they adversely affect
photosynthesis. Ex: Paraffin and wax emulsions, folic 2 % power oil 1 %.
3. Reflectant type: When sprayed on leaf surface, the reflectant type antitranspirants increase
the leaf albedo or leaf reflectance of sunlight. As a result, heating is reduced, leaf temperature
inside is low and need for transpiration is reduced. Eg. Kaolin, lime solution. Spraying
kaolin, at 3-6% concentration reduced leaf temperature by 3-4 °C and transpiration by 22-
28%. These are less expensive, non phytotoxic and do not interfere with photosynthesis since
stomatal closure does not take place. Spraying 5% kaolin to cotton at grand growth stage is
very successful.
4. Growth retardant type: Chemicals like cycocel (ccc-chloro choline chloride, chlor mequat)
when sprayed on foliage, reduce leaf area and thereby reduce the transpiring area and
transpiration.

Cultural methods of transpiration control


a) Weed control: Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient i.e. amount of water
transpired to produce unit quantity of dry matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted
transpiration loss through weeds.
b) Shelterbelts: Rows of trees grown across the direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce
temperature of air and plant canopy, increase humidity in the protected strips and thereby
reduce the atmospheric water demand and control transpiration in the inter space between
shelterbelts.
c) Alley cropping: This practice refers to raising perennial shrubs or tall crops as hedge rows
up to 1-2 m height at 48 m intervals and raising short statured annual crops in the alleys
(inter space between hedge rows). A similar effect on reduction in atmospheric water
demand and transpiration as described under shelter belts is caused in alley cropping. This
method is also called as hedge row inter cropping.
Hedge row Intercrop
Leucerne / Desmanthus Blackgram / cowpea / sunflower / groundnut
Agathi / castor / Perennial redgram / Cotton / blackgram
Casuarina (trained as bush) glyricidia /
cowpea

Exercise

1. Write about the cultural methods of transpiration control.


2. Explain about the types of antitranspirants
Ex. No. 7 Date:

Study of erosion problems in field

Objectives
1. To study about the erosion problems in the field

2. To learn the measures to control erosion in the field

Soil and water are the most critical basic resources, which must be conserved as
effectively as possible. No phenomenon is more destructive than soil erosion through which
fertile topsoil and rain water are lost. Soil and water conservation is the only known way to
protect the lands from degradation and conserving rainwater for improving the productivity of
dry land crops.
Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the topsoil and
transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and/or water. The detaching agents are
falling rain drop, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are flowing water, rain splash
and wind.
Out of 328 mha of India’s geographical area 175 m ha (53.3%) subject to soil erosion and
alll kind of land degradation. Out of which 104.6 m ha are cultivable.
Recent estimates indicate that about 5,333mt (16.35 t/ha) of soil is detached annually.
29% carried away by rivers to the sea.10% deposited in reservoirs resulting 1-2% loss of storage
capacity.
Types of erosion
Geological erosion: It is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming process. It takes place
under natural vegetative cover completely undisturbed by biotic factors. This long time slow
process has developed the present topographic features like stream channels, valleys, etc.
through weather abnormalities such as intense rainfall and biotic interference.
Accelerated erosion: It is due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activities of man and
animals through land mismanagement, destruction of forests, overgrazing, etc. Soil loss through
erosion is more than the soil formed due to soil forming process.
Water erosion
Water and wind are the main agencies responsible for soil erosion. Loss of soil from land
surface by water, including runoff from melted snow and ice is usually referred to as water
erosion.
The major erosive agents in water erosion are impacting raindrops and runoff water
flowing over the soil surface. Erosion and sedimentation embody the processes of detachment,
transportation and deposition of soil particles. Detachment is dislodging of soil particles from
soil mass by the erosive agents. Transportation is movement of detached soil particles (sediment)
from their original location. The sediment moves along the stream and part of it may eventually
reach the ocean. Some sediment is usually deposited at the base of the slopes, reservoirs and
flood plains along the way.
Forms of water erosion
1. Sheet Erosion: Sheet erosion takes place when the slope is gentle. The surface layer is
removed in thin layers over a wide area as a sheet. It is more dangerous.
2. Rill Erosion: Sheet erosion leads to rill erosion. Tiny finger like channels are formed .
3.Gully Erosion: This is the next stage to rill erosion. The soil from rill is removed and they
become wide and deep. Subsequently clearcut gullies are formed. It is a severe type of erosion. It
causes heavy loss of soil. The level of land is badly upset.
4.Stream Erosion: This is caused by streams, rivers etc when the velocity of water flow is high.
5.Wave Erosion: Water and wind combine to form waves. Wave erosion is caused by the
beating action of the waves on the sea-shores or bunds of tanks and lakes and the soil is taken
into the sea or tanks.
Factors affecting water erosion
a) Rainfall - amount, intensity, duration & distribution
b) Soils - primary particle size, distribution, OM, structure, Fe & Al oxides, initial moisture
content
c) Topography - nature and length of slope
d) Soil surface cover - plant canopy or mulches
e) Biotic interference – disturbance of natural balance
Losses due to erosion
● Loss of fertile top soil
● Loss of rain water
● Nutrient losses
● Silting up of reservoirs
● Damage to forests
● Reduced ground water potential
● Damage to reservoirs and irrigation channels
● Adverse effect on public health
Wind erosion
Erosion of soil by the action of wind is known as wind erosion. It is a serious problem on
lands devoid of vegetation. It is more common in arid and semiarid region. It is essentially a dry
weather phenomenon stimulated by soil moisture deficiency. The process of wind erosion
consists of three phases: initiation of movement, transportation and deposition. About 33 M ha in
India is affected by wind erosion. This includes 23.9 M ha of desert and about 6.5 M ha of
coastal sands.
Transportation of soil particles by wind takes place in three ways
Saltation - movement of soil particles by a short series of bounces along the ground surface
Suspension - movement of fine dust particles, smaller than 0.1mm dia floating in the air
Surface creep - Rolling and sliding of soil particles along the ground surface due to impact of
particles descending and hitting during saltation is called surface creep
Factors affecting wind erosion
1. Soil clodiness
2. Surface roughness
3. Water stable aggregates and surface crust (Mechanical stability)
4. Wind and soil moisture (surface is dry or slightly moist)
5. Field length
6. Vegetative cover
7. Organic matter (cementing)
8. Topography
9. Soil type (sand erodes easily)
Losses due to wind erosion
a. Fertile top soil is lost
b. Fertile soils are converted into unproductive sandy soils drifting sand
c. Yield losses due to abrasive action of wind driven soil particles, especially on broad
leaved crops
Water erosion control
Water erosion can be minimized by preventing the detachment of soil particles and their
transportation. Principles of water erosion control are;
⮚ Maintenance of soil infiltration capacity
⮚ Soil protection from rainfall
⮚ Control of surface runoff
⮚ Safe disposal of surface runoff
Control measures are grouped in to three Agronomic, mechanical and forestry measures.
Agronomic – Choice of crops, land preparation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching,
application of manures and fertilizers and appropriate cropping systems
Mechanical – Contour bunding, Graded bunding, Bench terracing, Contour trenching, Gully
control, vegetative barriers
Forestry – Perennial trees and grasses
Wind erosion control
Greatest damage by wind erosion occurs during summer months in dry regions, where soil
surface is bare and wind velocity is at its peak. Basic principles of wind erosion control are:
⮚ Reducing wind velocity at ground surface, sufficient to prevent it being able to pickup
soil particles
⮚ Increasing the size of soil aggregates or covering the soil with a non-erodable surface
⮚ Trapping the saltating soil particles
⮚ Keeping the soil moist so that soil particles moving by saltation loose their momentum at
the surface
Practices such as stubble mulching and minimum tillage, cover crops, strip-cropping,
crop rotation, wind barriers and shelterbelts and mulches can be practiced to minimize wind
erosion.
Exercise

1.Write the different forms of water erosion

2. How will you control water and wind erosion?


3. Write about the visual erosion problems observed in the field during your practical class.
Ex. No. 8 Date:

Preparation of contingent crop planning for aberrant weather conditions

Objectives
1. To know the preparation of contingent crop plan for aberrant weather conditions

Rainfall behaviour in dry farming areas is erratic and uncertain. The deviations in
rainfall behaviour commonly met with in dry areas include delayed onset, early withdrawal
intermediary dry spells during rainy season. The adverse effect of these rainfall aberrations on
crop growth vary with the degree of deviation and the crop growth stage at which such
deviations occur. Suitable manipulations in crop management practices are needed to minimize
such adverse effects of abnormal rainfall behaviour. These management decision, constitute
contingency planning. Such management practices done after crop establishment and in the
middle of growth are called midterm corrections.

Rainfall aberration Effect on crops


Delay in onset of rainfall Length of cropping season or cropping duration is
reduced - crop sowing is delayed
Early withdrawal or cessation of Moisture stress at maturity grain filling is affected
rainfall (terminal stress)
Intermediate dry spells
a. Immediately after sowing Germination affected, population reduced
b. At vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion,
branching or tillering
c. At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination grain / pod number
reduced
d. At ripening Grain filling and size reduced

Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of
rainfall observation.

Rainfall abnormality Contingency plan and midterm correction


1. Delayed onset of rainfall
a) Delay exceeding3-4 weeks Alternate crops of short duration to be sown
Delay in South west monsoon
Normal - June Groundnut
Delay - July Ragi / pearl millet
Delay - August Samai / Cowpea
Delay in South west monsoon
Normal - October Cotton / Sorghum
Delay - Early November Sunflower / Pearl millet / Ragi
Delay - Late November Coriander / Senna
b) Delay of 1-2 weeks Alternate varieties of short duration of same
crop Eg. Sorghum Co 19 (150 days) Co 25
(110 days) Red gram local (180 days) Co 5
(130 days)
2. Early withdrawal of rainfall Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder
(millets) harvesting at physiological maturity
3. Intermediary dry spell
a. Immediately after sowing Gap filling with subsequent rains if stand
reduction is less than 20%. Re-sowing if
stand reduction is more than 20%, mulching
between crop rows. Stirring soil surface to
create dust mulch to reduce evaporation
b. At vegetative phase Mulching, antitranspirant spray, spraying
potassium chloride, thinning of 33-50%
population
c. At flowering Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder
and ratooning with subsequent rains in
millets (e.g) sorghum
d. At ripening Antitranspirant spray, harvesting for fodder,
harvesting at physiological maturity
A contingent crop programme model for dry lands of Aruppukottai and Kovilpatti is furnished
below.

Rainfall period Aruppukottai Kovilpatti


Rain fall 810mm 730mm
On set of monsoon 37th standard week (2nd week of 41st standard week (2nd week of
September) October)
Soil Shallow vertisol Deep vertisol
Premonsoon 35th standard week 39th standard week
Sowing Last week of August Last week of September
Crops Cotton, Sorghum Hirsutum cotton, Sorghum (K8)
Fodder sorghum (K3)
Monsoon sowing 37th standard week 41st standard week
Choice of Crops Cotton, Sorghum, Maize, Cotton (Hirsutum and, arboreum
Redgram, Blackgram spp), maize, blackgram, sorghum
2 Weeks delayed 39th standard week(last week of 43rd standard week(last week of
September) October)
Maize, bajra Sunflower, coriander
4 Weeks delayed 41st standard week (2nd week of 45th standard week (2nd week of
October) November) Coriander, Gingelly,
Senna
6 Weeks delayed 43rd standard week (last week of 47th standard week (last week of
October) November)
Coriander Senna is possible if heavy rainfall is
received

Exercise

1. Explain about contingency plan and midterm corrections.

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