BIOLOGY

1
ART INTEGRATED
PROJECT
PM SHRI JNV RAIGARH

(CG)
2
SUBMITTED BY
GUIDED BY ROHAN KUMAR RATHIA
NAMESHWARI
12TH SCIENCE
MA’AM
ROLL NO. 35
CERTIFICATE
This is certified that Rohan Kumar

Rathia student of class XII science
has successfully completed the
mentioned project during the
session 2024-25 in partial
fulfillment of biology practical
examination conducted by CBSE.
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Sign of teacher Sign of

Principal
Sign of External examiner

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 I would like to express my special

thanks of gratitude to my principal
Mrs. Anuradha Sharma ma’am
and my teacher Mrs.
Nameshwari ma’am who gave
me the golden opportunity to do
this wonderful project , which also
helped me in doing a lot of
research and I came to know about
so many new things I am really
thankful of them.
 Secondly I would also like to thank
my and friends who helped me a
lot in finalizing the project in
limited time frame .
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INDEX
 Certificate
 Acknowledgement
 What is DNA ?
 Discovery
 DNA structure
 Chargaff’s Rule
 DNA replication
 Function of DNA
 Why DNA is called
polynucleotide molecules?
 Bibliography
WHAT IS DNA ?
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“DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible

for carrying and transmitting the hereditary
materials or the genetic instructions from
parents to offsprings.”
This is also true for viruses, as most of these entities
have either RNA or DNA as their genetic material. For
instance, some viruses may have RNA as their genetic
material, while others have DNA as the genetic
material. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
contains RNA, which is then converted into DNA after
attaching itself to the host cell.
Apart from being responsible for the inheritance of

genetic information in all living beings, DNA also plays
a crucial role in the production of proteins. Nuclear
DNA is the DNA contained within the nucleus of every
cell in a eukaryotic organism. It codes for the majority
of the organism’s genomes while the mitochondrial
DNA and plastid DNA handles the rest.
The DNA present in the mitochondrIa of the cell is

termed mitochondrial DNA. It is inherited from the
mother to the child. In humans, there are
approximately 16,000 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA.
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Similarly, plastids have their own DNA, and they play

an essential role in photosynthesis.
Full form of DNA :-

DNA is known as Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is an
organic compound that has a unique molecular
structure. It is found in all prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells.
Types of DNA :-
There are three different DNA types:
A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the

B-DNA form. Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that
protects the DNA during extreme conditions such as
desiccation. Protein binding also removes the solvent
from DNA, and the DNA takes an A form.
B-DNA: This is the most common DNA conformation
and is a right-handed helix. The majority of DNA has a
B type conformation under normal physiological
conditions.
Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double

helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. It was
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discovered by Andres Wang and Alexander Rich. It is

found ahead of the start site of a gene and hence, is
believed to play some role in gene regulation.
WHO DISCOVERED DNA

?
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss
biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869 during his
research on white blood cells.
The double helix structure of a DNA molecule was later
discovered through the experimental data by James
Watson and Francis Crick. Finally, it was proved that
DNA is responsible for storing genetic information in
living organisms.
DIAGRAM OF DNA
The following diagram explains the DNA structure
representing the different parts of the DNA. DNA
comprises a sugar-phosphate backbone and the
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nucleotide bases (guanine, cytosine, adenine and

thymine).
DNA STRUCTURE
The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted
ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix, as
illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and
all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA
molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and
each nucleotide is composed of three different
components such as sugar, phosphate groups and
nitrogen bases.
The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which
are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups
link the nucleotides together to form each strand of
DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and
Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.
These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the
following way: A with T, and C with G. These base pairs
are essential for the DNA’s helix structure, which
resembles a twisted ladder.
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The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the

genetic code or the DNA’s instructions.
Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar

is the one which forms the backbone of the DNA
molecule. It is also called deoxyribose. The nitrogenous
bases of the opposite strands form hydrogen bonds,
forming a ladder-like structure.
The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely

adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G),
which ultimately form the structure of a nucleotide.
The A and G are purines, and the C and T are
pyrimidines.
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The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions.

These strands are held together by the hydrogen bond
that is present between the two complementary bases.
The strands are helically twisted, where each strand
forms a right-handed coil, and ten nucleotides make up
a single turn.
The pitch of each helix Is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance
between two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-
bonded bases of the opposite strands) is 0.34 nm.
The DNA coils up, forming chromosomes, and each

chromosome has a single molecule of DNA in it.
Overall, human beings have around twenty-three pairs
of chromosomes in the nucleus of cells. DNA also plays
an essential role in the process of cell division.
CHARGAFF’S RULE
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Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered that the

number of nitrogenous bases in the DNA was
present in equal quantities. The amount of A is equal to
T, whereas the amount of C is equal to G.
A=T; C=G
In other words, the DNA of any cell from any organism
should have a 1:1 ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases.
DNA REPLICATION
DNA replication is an important process that occurs
during cell division. It is also known as semi-
conservative replication, during which DNA makes a
copy of itself.
DNA replication takes place in three stages:
Step 1: Initiation
The replication of DNA begins at a point known as the
origin of replication. The two DNA strands are
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separated by the DNA helicase. This forms the

replication fork.
Step 2: Elongation
DNA polymerase III reads the nucleotides on the
template strand and makes a new strand by adding
complementary nucleotides one after the other. For
eg., if it reads an Adenine on the template strand, it
will add a Thymine on the complementary strand.
While adding nucleotides to the lagging strand, gaps
are formed between the strands. These gaps are
known as Okazaki fragments. These gaps or nicks are
sealed by ligase.
Step 3: Termination
The termination sequence present opposite to the
origin of replication terminates the replication process.
The TUS protein (terminus utilization substance) binds
to terminator sequence and halts DNA polymerase
movement. It induces termination.
DNA FUNCTION
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DNA is the genetic material which carries all the

hereditary information. Genes are the small segments
of DNA, consisting mostly of 250 – 2 million base pairs.
A gene code for a polypeptide molecule, where three
nitrogenous bases sequence stands for one amino acid.
Polypeptide chains are further folded in secondary,

tertiary and quaternary structures to form different
proteins. As every organism contains many genes in its
DNA, different types of proteins can be formed.
Proteins are the main functional and structural
molecules in most organisms. Apart from storing
genetic information, DNA is involved in:
 Replication process: Transferring the genetic

information from one cell to its daughters and from
one generation to the next and equal distribution
of DNA during the cell division
 Mutations: The changes which occur in the DNA
sequences
 Transcription
 Cellular Metabolism
 DNA Fingerprinting
 Gene Therapy
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WHY DNA IS CALLED

POLYNUCLEOTIDE MOLECULES ?
The DNA is called a polynucleotide because the DNA
molecule is composed of nucleotides – deoxyadenylate
(A) deoxyguanylate (G) deoxycytidylate (C) and
deoxythymidylate (T), which are combined to create
long chains called a polynucleotide. As per the DNA
structure, the DNA consists of two chains of
polynucleotides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
★https://byjus.com/biology/dna-
structure/
★ google search engine
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★ncert book
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PM SHRI JNV RAIGARH

This is certified that Rohan Kumar

Sign of teacher Sign of

Sign of External examiner

 I would like to express my special

“DNA is a group of molecules that is responsible

Apart from being responsible for the inheritance of

The DNA present in the mitochondrIa of the cell is

Similarly, plastids have their own DNA, and they play

Full form of DNA :-

A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the

Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double

discovered by Andres Wang and Alexander Rich. It is

WHO DISCOVERED DNA

nucleotide bases (guanine, cytosine, adenine and

The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the

Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar

The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions.

The DNA coils up, forming chromosomes, and each

Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered that the

separated by the DNA helicase. This forms the

DNA is the genetic material which carries all the

Polypeptide chains are further folded in secondary,

 Replication process: Transferring the genetic

WHY DNA IS CALLED

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