Reflection of Light

Key Concepts:- Normal Line: A line perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the point of incidence.

Angle of Incidence ($i$): The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

Angle of Reflection ($r$): The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, expressed as: i= r

Image Formation

A plane mirror creates a virtual image of an object.

Characteristics of the image:

Size: The image is the same size as the object.

Distance: The image is the same distance from the mirror as the object.

Orientation: The image is laterally inverted (left and right are switched).

Example:- If an object is placed 2 meters in front of a plane mirror, the virtual image will also appear 2 meters

behind the mirror.

Sources of Light

Luminous Objects: Emit their own light (e.g., the Sun, light bulbs).

Non-luminous Objects: Reflect light from luminous sources (e.g., the Moon).. Luminous Sources

Light is produced when atoms become 'excited' due to energy input.

Laser: A special type of luminous source that emits a narrow, bright beam of light, used in various applications like:

Cutting metal

Scanning barcodes

Medical surgeries

Rays and Beams

Light travels in straight lines, represented as rays in diagrams.

A ray is a straight line with an arrow indicating the direction of light.

A beam is a collection of rays traveling in the same direction.

Construct a Setup: Use a plane mirror and a light source.

Measure Angles: Use a protractor to measure the angle of incidence and angle of reflection.

Calculate: Verify that the angles are equal as per the law of reflection

Experiment with Mirrors

Setup: Place a plane mirror on line AOB

Shine Light: Direct a narrow ray of light at an angle (e.g., $30^{\circ}$) onto the mirror.

Observe Reflection: Mark the position of the reflected ray, then measure the angle between the reflected ray and

the normal (ON).

Repeat: Conduct the experiment with different angles.

Conclusion:- The incident ray and the reflected ray follow the law of reflection, meaning the angles of incidence and

reflection are equal.

Periscopes

Simple Periscope: Consists of two plane mirrors at $45^{\circ}$ angles, allowing light to turn through $90^{\circ}$ at

each reflection.

Function: Enables viewing over obstacles or crowds.

Construction: Create a periscope using a cardboard box and mirrors, then modify it to see behind you.

Shadows

Formation: Shadows occur because:

Opaque objects block light.

Light travels in straight lines.

Types of Shadows:

Umbra: The dark central region of a shadow.

Penumbra: The lighter outer region where some light reaches.

Speed of Light

Light travels much faster than sound, demonstrated by observing lightning before hearing thunder.

The speed of light is approximately $1$ million times faster than sound.
Practical Applications

Mirrors in Traffic: Mirrors can be used to change the direction of light, aiding visibility in concealed areas.

Construction of Mirrors: A typical mirror has a silver layer on the back of glass, which acts as the reflecting

surface.

Summary of Reflection Terms

Normal: Perpendicular line to the surface.

Angle of Incidence: Angle between the incident ray and the normal.

Angle of Reflection: Angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Law of Reflection: i = r; all rays lie in the same plane.

3.2.1 Reflection of Light

Real and Virtual Images

Real Image:

Can be projected onto a screen.

Formed by rays that actually pass through the screen.

Virtual Image:

Cannot be projected onto a screen.

Formed by rays that appear to come from a point but do not actually pass through it.

Example: Image in a plane mirror.

Properties of Images in a Plane Mirror

The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

The image is the same size as the object.

The image is virtual.

Lateral Inversion

When viewing an image in a mirror, left and right are interchanged.

Example: Closing your left eye makes it seem like the image closes its right eye.

Kaleidoscope
Construction:

Use a cardboard tube (like half a kitchen roll).

Materials: Thin card, greaseproof paper, clear sticky tape, small pieces of colored cellophane, and two mirrors

(dimensions: $10 \mathrm{cm} \times 3 \mathrm{cm}$) or a single plastic mirror bent to form two mirrors at

$60^{\circ}$.

Function:

Produces patterns using images formed by two plane mirrors.

Patterns change as objects move.

Regular and Diffuse Reflection

Regular Reflection:

Occurs when a parallel beam of light hits a plane mirror and reflects as a parallel beam.

Diffuse Reflection:

Occurs when light reflects off irregular surfaces, scattering in many directions.

Practical Work: Reflection by a Plane Mirror

Experiment: Support a piece of thin glass vertically.

Place a small paper arrow (O) about 10 cm from the glass.

Observe the image of O in the glass.

Place another identical arrow (I) behind the glass and adjust until it coincides with the image of O.

Compare sizes and distances of O and I from the glass.

Refraction of Light

Key Concepts

Refraction: The bending of light when it passes from one medium to another.

Normal: A perpendicular line to the boundary between two mediums.

Angle of Incidence ($i$): The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

Angle of Refraction ($r$): The angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

Refraction Behavior
Entering a Denser Medium:

Light bends towards the normal.

Example: Air to glass.

Result: $r < i$ (the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence).

Entering a Less Dense Medium:

Light bends away from the normal.

Example: Glass to air.

Result: $r > i$.

Emerging from a Parallel-Sided Block:

The ray is parallel to the incident ray but displaced sideways.

Ray Along the Normal:

No refraction occurs if the ray travels along the normal.

Refractive Index

Definition: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction.

Formula: $ n = \frac{\sin i}{\sin r} $

Implication: A higher refractive index means more bending of light.

Real and Apparent Depth

Light rays from a submerged object appear to come from a higher position due to refraction.

Example: A pool appears shallower than it is.

Practical Work

Experiment: Shine a ray of light at an angle onto a glass block and observe the refraction.

Safety Note: The filament lamp may get hot during use.

Summary of Refraction Facts

A ray of light bends towards the normal when entering a denser medium.

A ray of light bends away from the normal when entering a less dense medium.
Rays emerging from a parallel-sided block remain parallel but are displaced.

Rays hitting the boundary at right angles are not refracted.

Light Refraction and Total Internal Reflection

Refraction of Light

When light travels from one medium to another (e.g., air to water), it changes direction.

This change in direction occurs because the speed of light is different in different media.

Key Concepts

Refractive Index ($n$): A measure of how much light slows down in a medium compared to air.

Formula: $n = \frac{c}{v}$

$c$: speed of light in a vacuum

$v$: speed of light in the medium

Snell's Law: Relates the angles of incidence and refraction.

Formula: $n_1 \sin(\theta_1) = n_2 \sin(\theta_2)$

$n_1$: refractive index of the first medium

$n_2$: refractive index of the second medium

$\theta_1$: angle of incidence

$\theta_2$: angle of refraction

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

Critical Angle ($\theta_c$): The angle of incidence at which light is refracted along the boundary.

Formula: $\theta_c = \sin^{-1}\left(\frac{n_2}{n_1}\right)$

Occurs when light moves from a denser medium to a less dense medium (e.g., water to air).

Total Internal Reflection:

Happens when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

The light is completely reflected back into the denser medium.

Applications
Optical Fibres: Use total internal reflection to transmit light signals.

Applications include:

Medicine (endoscopes)

Telecommunications (internet data transmission)

Experiment Suggestion:- Place a coin in a dish and back away until it is no longer visible.

Pour water into the dish and observe how the coin becomes visible again due to refraction.

Thin Lenses

Converging Lenses

Definition: A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and bends light inwards

Principal Focus (F):

When light rays parallel to the principal axis pass through the lens, they converge at a point called the principal

focus.

This focus is real and located on the principal axis.

Ray Diagrams

Ray 1: Passes through the principal focus and exits parallel to the principal axis.

Ray 2: Passes through the optical center and continues undeviated.

Image Formation:

Object between F and 2F:

Image is real, inverted, and diminished.

Object at 2F:

Image is real, inverted, and the same size.

Object beyond 2F:

Image is real, inverted, and enlarged.

Diverging Lenses

Definition: A diverging (or concave) lens is thinnest in the center and spreads light outwards.

Principal Focus:
The focus is virtual and located behind the lens.

Always produces a diminished, virtual image.

Characteristics of Images

Real Images: Can be projected on a screen, formed when light rays converge.

Virtual Images: Cannot be projected on a screen, formed by extrapolating diverging rays backwards.

Power of a Lens

Definition: The power of a lens ($P$) is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length ($f$) measured in meters: $ P =

\frac{1}{f}

Stronger Lens: A lens with a shorter focal length has a greater power.

Magnifying Glass

Function: A converging lens acts as a magnifying glass by producing an enlarged, upright, virtual image of an object

placed between the lens and its principal focus.

Angle of View: The apparent size of an object increases as it encloses a larger angle at the eye.

Key Definitions

Principal Axis: The line through the optical center of a lens at right angles to the lens.

Focal Length ($f$): The distance from the optical center to the principal focus.

Safety Note

Caution: Never look directly at the Sun or through a lens at the Sun to avoid eye damage.

Summary

Types of Lenses:

Converging lenses focus light and can create real images

.Diverging lenses spread light and create virtual images.

Applications: Lenses are used in various optical instruments like cameras, microscopes, and spectacles to correct

vision.

Dispersion of Light

What is Dispersion?

Dispersion occurs when white light passes through a triangular glass prism.
It separates white light into a spectrum of colors.

This happens because different colors of light have different refractive indices in glass.

The Visible Spectrum:: The traditional colors of the visible spectrum in order of increasing wavelength are:

Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red

In terms of frequency, the order is reversed:

Red has the longest wavelength and lowest frequency.

Violet has the shortest wavelength and highest frequency.

Refraction and Deviation

When light enters a prism, it bends (refracts) at the first surface and again at the second surface.

The overall change in direction of the ray is called deviation.

Unlike a parallel-sided block, where the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, the prism causes the rays to

spread out.

Demonstration of Dispersion

A common demonstration of dispersion is through a rainbow, where sunlight is refracted by raindrops, creating a

spectrum of colors.

Key Points to Remember

Dispersion: Separation of light into colors due to different refractive indices.

Refractive Index: Greatest for violet light, least for red light.

Deviation: The overall bending of light as it passes through a prism.

Additional Concepts

Magnification: The linear magnification of an image is the ratio of image length to object length.

Short-sightedness: Corrected with diverging lenses.

Long-sightedness: Corrected with converging lenses.

Example Calculation

If a converging lens forms an image 10 cm high of an object that is 5 cm high, the linear magnification ($M$) can

be calculated as: $ M = \frac{\text{Image Height}}{\text{Object Height}} = \frac{10 \text{ cm}}{5 \text{ cm}} = 2 $

This means the image is twice the height of the object.