UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES, SUNYANI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

BSC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, AUTOMOBILE OPTION): LEVEL 400

LECTURE NOTE: VEHICLE CONTROL, SUSPENSION AND STABILITY (MECH 492)

LECTURER: DANIEL KWASI ANSAH

VEHICLE SUSPENSION SYSTEM Introduction
A vehicle needs a suspension system to cushion and damp out road shocks, so providing
comfort to the passengers and preventing damage to the load and vehicle components.

The main function of a suspension system is to stop road shocks from being transmitted to
the vehicle body.
Suspension and spring systems have several tasks:
– to control the movements of the wheel with respect to the body
– to accommodate the driving and braking forces
– to carry the mass of the vehicle and the cargo that it carries
– to accommodate and absorb vibrations, roll and shocks when driving.
The suspension and spring system are linked together. Together they must ensure good
handling and good driving comfort.
The suspension system has the following main functional requirements:
• Cushion the car, passengers and load from road surface irregularities.
• Resist the effects of steering, braking and acceleration, even on hills and when loads
are carried.
• To ensure that the front and rear axles are correctly located.
• The tire must be able to rise and fall, relative to the body of the vehicle, to allow the
springs and shock absorbers to reduce bump and road shocks.

• Tyres must be kept in contact with the road at all times. It is important for the
suspension system to keep the alignment of the tires as accurate as possible so that
maximum contact between the tire and the road is maintained.
• The springs should be able to carry the weight of the vehicle.
• Work in conjunction with the tyres and seat springs to give an acceptable ride at all
speeds.
The above list is difficult to achieve completely, so some sort of compromise has to be
reached. Because of this many different methods have been tried, and many are still in use.
Keeping these four main requirements in mind will help you to understand why some
systems are constructed in different ways.
Terminology
Spring: The part of the suspension system that takes up the movement or shock from the
road
or vehicle movement. The energy of the movement is stored in the spring. There are many
different forms of spring, ranging from a steel coil to a pressurised chamber of nitrogen.
Damper: The energy stored in the spring after a bump has to be got rid of, otherwise the
spring would oscillate (bounce up and down). The damper reduces these oscillations by
converting the energy from the spring into heat. If working correctly, the spring should stop
moving after just one bounce and rebound.
Shock absorber: This term describes the action of a spring. It is often used incorrectly to
describe a Damper.
Strut: Often the combination of a coil spring with a damper inside it, between the wheel stub
axle and the inner wing. This is a very popular type of suspension.
Wishbone: A triangular shaped component with two corners hinged in a straight line on the
vehicle body and the third corner hinged to the moving part of the suspension.
Bump stop: When a vehicle hits a particularly large bump, or if it is carrying a heavy load,
the suspension system may bottom out (reach the end of its travel). The bump stops, usually
made of rubber, prevents metal to metal contact which would cause damage
IFS: Independent front suspension
IRS: Independent rear suspension
Link: A very general term to describe a bar or similar component that holds or controls the
position of another component. Other terms may be used such as tie bar.
Beam axle: A solid axle from one wheel to the other. Not now used on the majority of light
vehicles, but still common on heavy vehicles as it makes a very strong construction.
Gas/fluid suspension: The most common types of spring are made from spring steel.
However, some vehicles use pressurised gas as the spring (think of a balloon or a football).
On some vehicles a connection between wheels is made using fluid running through pipes
from one suspension unit to another.
‘Sprung’ and ‘Unsprung’ Mass of a Suspension System.
Sprung mass is that which is supported by the vehicle springs. Unsprung mass is that of the
components between the springs and the road. For most vehicles, unsprung mass includes
wheels, tyres, brake, steering and suspension components, as well as part of the drive shafts.
But some of the suspension and drive components are sprung at one end and unsprung at the
other! The less mass the road wheel and the other units attached to it have, the smaller is the
total energy involved when they are moved. Vehicles are made with as little unsprung mass
as possible as this reduces the effect of road shock on the vehicle body. Soft springs provide
the best comfort, but stiff springs can be better for high performance. Vehicle springs and
suspension therefore are made to provide a compromise between good handling and comfort.

How Suspension System Works

A spring between the wheel and the vehicle body allows the wheel to follow the road
surface. The tyre plays an important role in absorbing small road shocks. It is often described
as the primary form of suspension. The vehicle body is supported by springs located between
the body and the wheel axles. Together with the damper, these components are referred to as
the suspension system.

The weight of the vehicle, including its load, acts on the springs. The springs and other
components compress and expand as the wheels hit bumps or holes in the road. The function
of the suspension components is to allow the wheels to move up and down without moving
the vehicle body. As a wheel hits a bump in the road, it is moved upwards with quite some
force. An unsprung wheel is affected only by gravity, which will try to return the wheel to
the road surface, but most of the energy will be transferred to the body. When a spring is
used between the wheel and the vehicle body, most of the energy in the bouncing wheel is
stored in the spring and not passed to the vehicle body. The vehicle body will now only
move upwards through a very small distance compared to the movement of the wheel.
Figure 1: Vehicle showing main suspension components

Suspensions may be divided into two types:

• Non-Independent suspension: It is fitted to vehicles that have beam axles, and for
light vehicles is usually combined with leaf springs. Its disadvantage is that when one
of the wheels rises or falls because of an uneven road surface, the movement is
transmitted across the whole axle and causes the vehicle to tilt.
• Independent suspension: This allows a wheel of the vehicle to move without
affecting the wheel on the other side or the body. This ensures that the vehicle
remains at a more even and constant ride height at all times.

Types of Spring

Coil Springs
Although modern vehicles use a number of different types of spring medium, the most
popular is the coil (or helical) spring. Coil or helical springs used in vehicle suspension
systems are made from round spring steel bars. The heated bar is wound on a special former
and then heat treated to obtain the correct elasticity (springiness). The spring can withstand
any compression load, but not side thrust. It is also difficult for a coil spring to resist braking
or driving thrust. Suspension arms are used to resist these loads.
Coil springs are used with independent suspension systems; the springs are usually fitted on
each side of the vehicle, between the stub axle assembly and the body. The spring remains in
the correct position because recesses are made in both the stub axle assembly and body. Due
to the weight of the vehicle the spring is always under compression and hence holds itself in
place.
Leaf Springs
The leaf spring can provide all the control for the wheels during acceleration, braking,
cornering and general movement caused by the road surface. They are used with fixed axles.
There are two main types of leaf spring:
• Laminated or multi leaf springs
• Single leaf or mono leaf springs
• A third type, known as the tapered leaf spring, is a combination of these two.
The multi leaf spring was widely used at the rear of cars and light vehicles and is still used in
commercial vehicle suspension systems. It consists of a number of steel strips or leaves
placed on top of each other and then clamped together. The length, cross section and number
of leaves is determined by the loads carried.

The top leaf is called the main leaf, and each end of this leaf is rolled to form an eye. This is
for attachment to the vehicle chassis or body. The leaves of the spring are clamped together
by a bolt or pin known as the Centre bolt. The spring eye allows movement about a shackle
and pin at the rear, allowing the spring to flex. The vehicle is pushed along by the rear axle
through the front section of the spring which is anchored firmly to the fixed shackle on the
vehicle chassis or body. The curve of a leaf spring straightens out when a load is applied to
it, and its length changes.
Because of this change in length, the rear end of the spring is fixed by a shackle bolt to a
swinging shackle. As the road wheel passes over a bump, the spring is compressed and the
leaves slide over each other. As it returns to its original shape, the spring forces the wheel
back in contact with the road. The leaf spring is usually secured to the axle by means of U
bolts. As the leaves of the spring move, they rub together. This is known as interleaf friction,
which also has a damping effect.

Figure 2: Coil Spring Figure 3: Laminated Leaf Spring

Single Leaf or Mono Leaf Springs

A single leaf spring, as the name implies, consists of one uniformly stressed leaf. The spring
varies in thickness from a maximum at the centre to a minimum at the spring eyes. This type
of leaf spring is made to work in the same way as a multi leaf spring. Advantages of this type
of spring are as follows:
• Simplified construction
 • Constant performance over a period of time because interleaf friction is eliminated
• Reduction in unsprung mass.

Leaf springs are now rarely found on light vehicles, but never say never!

Figure 4: Single Leaf Spring

Torsion Bars
This type of suspension uses a metal bar which provides the springing effect as it is twisted.
It has the advantage that the components do not take up too much room. Some vehicles that
use torsion bars do not have dampers. This is because some layouts have a self-damping
effect.

Figure 5: Torsion bar spring

Pneumatic or Air Suspension
The air spring is a reinforced rubber bellow fitted between the axle and the chassis, or
vehicle body.
An air compressor is used to increase or decrease the pressure depending on the load in the
vehicle. This is done automatically, but some manual control can be retained for adjusting
the height of the vehicle or stiffness of the suspension.

Steel springs must be stiff enough to carry a vehicle’s maximum load. This can result in the
springs being too stiff to provide consistent ride control and comfort when the vehicle is
empty. Pneumatic suspension can be made self-compensating. It is fitted to many heavy
goods vehicles and buses, but is also becoming more popular on some off road light vehicles.

Figure 6: Air suspension (heavy vehicle)

Rubber springs
This is now a very old system, but often old ideas come back! The suspension medium, or
spring, is simply a specially shaped piece of rubber. This technique was used on early Minis,
for example. In most cases the rubber did not require damping.
 Figure 7: Rubber Spring Suspension

Hydrolastic Suspension
The suspension unit is supported by a rubber spring. Under the spring a chamber of fluid is
connected by a pipe to the corresponding front or rear unit. This system was the forerunner
to the hydragas system.
 Figure 8: Hydrolastic Suspension

Hydragas Suspension
In the hydragas suspension system, each wheel has a sealed displacer unit with nitrogen gas
under very high pressure. This works in much the same way as the steel spring in a
conventional system. A damper is also incorporated within the displacer unit. The lower part
of the displacer units is filled with a suspension fluid (usually a type of wood alcohol). The
units can be joined by pipes or used individually.

Connecting suspension units by fluid in pipes is designed to improve the ride quality.
Linking front to rear makes the rear unit rise as the front unit is compressed by a bump. This
tends to keep the vehicle level.
 Figure 9: Hydragas Suspension

Active or ‘live’ Hydropneumatic Suspension

Conventional suspension systems are always a compromise between soft springs for comfort
and harder springing for better cornering ability.
This system, shown in figure 17, allows the driver to adjust the ride height (sometimes
inaccurately referred to as ground clearance) of the vehicle. It also maintains this clearance
irrespective of the load being carried. First developed by Citroen it has recently been taken
up by a number of other manufacturers. On the Citroen arrangement each suspension arm is
supported by a pneumatic spring.

Connected between the suspension arms at both front and rear are anti-roll bars. These are
linked to height correctors by means of control rods. An engine driven pump supplies oil
under pressure to a hydraulic accumulator and this is connected to the height control or
levelling valves.

As the vehicle is loaded, the downward movement of the body causes the rotation of the anti-
roll bar. This moves the slide valve in the height correctors and uncovers the port to supply
oil under pressure from the accumulator to the suspension cylinders. When the body reaches
the predetermined height (which can be varied by the driver moving a lever inside the
vehicle), the valve moves to the ‘neutral’ position. Removal of the load causes the valve to
vent oil from the cylinder back to the reservoir.

A delay device is incorporated to prevent rapid oil flow past the valve when the wheel
contacts a bump. This prevents the valve from continuously working and giving
unsatisfactory operation. In some systems a third spring unit is fitted between the two spring
units on the front axle and between the two spring units on the rear axle. This gives a
variable spring rate and roll stiffness, i.e. the suspension is active. The system is controlled
by an ECU (electronic control unit) which senses steering wheel movement, acceleration,
speed and body movement and reacts accordingly via control valves to regulate the flow of
oil to and from the suspension units. Under normal driving conditions the ECU operates the
solenoid valve which directs fluid to open the regulator valves. This allows fluid to flow
between the two outer spring units and the third spring units via the damper units to give a
soft ride. During harder driving the solenoid valve is switched off automatically relieving the
regulator valves which close, preventing fluid flow between the spring units. The third spring
unit being isolated and not in use gives a firmer ride.

There are a number of benefits of this system:

• it automatically adjusts the spring and damper rate to suit road conditions and driving
styles;
• it can provide a soft and comfortable ride under normal driving conditions;
• it will stiffen to give better road holding during hard driving;
• a near constant ride height can be achieved irrespective of the load on the vehicle.
• improvements in ride comfort, handling and safety
• predictable control of the vehicle under different conditions
• no change in handling between laden and unladen.
The benefits are considerable, and as component prices fall the system will become available
on more vehicles. Lotus Engineering have been one of the main companies involved in
developing active suspension and deserve credit for advancing the system. It is expected that
even off road vehicles may be fitted with active suspension in the near future.
 Fig. 17: Simplified layout of hydropneumatics suspension system

Figure 18: Active Suspension Block Diagram

Dampers
As a spring is deflected, energy is stored in it. If the spring is free to move, the energy is
released in the form of oscillations for a short time, before coming to rest. This principle can
be demonstrated by flicking the end of a ruler placed on the edge of a desk. The function of
the damper is to absorb the stored energy which reduces the rebound oscillation. A spring
without a damper would build up dangerous and uncomfortable bouncing of the vehicle.

Hydraulic dampers are the most common type used on modern vehicles. They work by
forcing fluid through small holes. The energy in the spring is converted into heat as the fluid
(a type of oil) is forced rapidly through the small holes (orifices). The oil temperature in a
damper can reach over 150°C during normal operation. As an example think of using a hand
oil pump and how hard it is to make the oil flow quickly.

The main type of hydraulic damper is known as the telescopic type. A lever arm type used on
earlier vehicles works on the same principle. Hydrolastic and hydrogas suspension systems
have the damper built in to the displacer units.

Telescopic dampers
This is the most common type of hydraulic damper used on modern vehicles. The damper is
mounted between the body and the axle or wishbone. A piston, connected to a rod fixed via a
rubber bush to the vehicle body, moves oil in a circuit around the damper through valves
from one chamber to another. On some types oil passes through valves in the piston. The
units are filled with a thin oil and are usually sealed for life. Most dampers contain rubber
bushes in mounting eyes. A double acting damping action works on both the bump and
rebound (up and down) strokes.

A typical double acting telescopic damper is made with a central pressure tube surrounded by
a reservoir tube. Two valves are fitted in the base of the pressure tube to control the
movement of fluid between the two tubes. The pressure and reservoir tubes are filled with
fluid and are sealed.
The pressure tube contains a sliding piston and valve assembly at the lower end of the piston
rod.
There is usually another tube over the rod and cylinder – this is simply a dirt shield.
On the compression stroke (bump stroke), the axle pushes the piston into the cylinder and oil
pressure opens the piston compression valve. Oil passes via the port in the piston from the
lower to the upper chamber. The oil also passes through the compression valve to the
reservoir. On the rebound stroke, the piston and the base valves close and oil passes through
the rebound valves to the lower chamber.

Resistance to movement is determined mostly by the size of the valve orifice (small hole). A
difference between bump and rebound can be obtained simply with different sized valves.
The damper can be designed to give a soft downwards movement when the vehicle first hits
a bump, with a harder rebound movement on the return stroke. This type of damper is called
a single acting.
The only difference in operation is that larger orifices are used in the bump valves.

Figure 10: Action of a spring with and without a damper

 Figure 11: Telescopic Damper
Suspension System Layouts

Independent Front Suspension (IFS)

On most older types of vehicle, a beam axle was used to support two stub axles. Beam axles
are now rarely used in car suspension systems, although many commercial vehicles use beam
axles because of their greater strength and constant ground clearance.

The need for a better suspension system came from the demand for improved ride quality
and improved handling. Independent front suspension (IFS) was developed to meet this need.
The main advantages of independent front suspension are as follows:
• When one wheel is lifted or drops, it does not affect the opposite wheel.
• The unsprung mass is lower; therefore, the road wheel stays in better contact with the
road.
 • Problems with changing steering geometry are reduced.
• More space for the engine at the front.
• Softer springing with larger wheel movement is possible.
A number of basic suspension systems are in common use.

Figure 12: Rear beam axle suspension with front struts

Wishbone Suspension
Twin unequal length wishbone suspension is widely used on light vehicles. A coil spring is
used between two suspension arms. The suspension arms are ‘wishbone’ shaped, and the
bottom end of the spring fits in a plate in the lower wishbone assembly. The top end of the
spring is located in a section of the body. The top and bottom wishbones are attached to the
chassis by rubber bushes. A damper is fitted inside the spring and, as the spring, is attached
at the top to the body and at the bottom to the lower wishbone. The stub axle and swivel pins
are connected to the outer ends of the upper and lower wishbones by ball or swivel joints.
 Figure 13: Wishbone Suspension Layout

Strut Type Suspension

This type of suspension system has been used for many years. It is often referred to as the
MacPherson Strut system. With this system, the stub axle is combined with the bottom
section of a telescopic tube which incorporates a damper. The bottom end of the strut is
connected to the outer part of a transverse link (like a wishbone again) by means of a ball
joint. The inner part of the link is secured to the body by rubber bushes. The top of the strut
is fixed to the vehicle body by a bearing which allows the complete strut to swivel. A coil
spring is located between the upper and lower sections of the strut. This suspension system is
quite simple in construction and is very effective in operation. However, when the
suspension is moved, the steering angles do change a little.
 Figure 14: Strut Type Suspension

Rear Wheel Suspensions

The systems used for the rear suspension of light vehicles vary, depending on the
requirements of the vehicle and whether the vehicle is front or rear wheel drive. Old vehicles
using leaf type springs were described briefly earlier. This leaves two main types using IRS:
• strut type (front wheel drive)
• trailing and semi-trailing arm with coil springs (rear wheel drive).
The strut type is very much the same as used at the front of the vehicle. The damper can be
mounted separately or inside the coil spring. Note that suitable links are used to allow up and
down movement but to prevent the wheel moving in any other direction. Some change in the
wheel geometry is designed in to improve handling on corners.

Trailing arm suspension and semi-trailing arm suspension both use two wishbone shaped
arms hinged on the body. Trailing arms are at right angles to the vehicle centre line and
semi-trailing arms are at an angle. This changes the geometry of the wheels as the suspension
moves. The final drive and differential unit is fixed with rubber mountings to the vehicle
body. Drive shafts must therefore be used to allow drive to be passed from the fixed final
drive to the moveable wheels. The coil springs and dampers are mounted between the
trailing arms and the vehicle body. Because of the shape of the arms, the wheels are fixed so
that they will only move up and down with the suspension
Figure 15: Rear Wheel Suspension – Strut Type

Figure 16: Rear Wheel Suspension – Trailing Arm Method

 Vehicle Steering System
Introduction
The steering mechanism has two main purposes. It must enable the driver to: easily maintain
the straight-ahead direction of the vehicle even when bumps are encountered at high speeds;
and to change the direction of the vehicle with the minimum amount of effort at the steering
wheel.

When the driver turns the steering wheel, the front wheels move and the car turns the corner!
From the driver’s point of view, it is that simple, but many more factors have to be taken into
consideration.
For example:
■ the effect of road surface irregularities
■ tyre behaviour under cornering stresses
■ an efficient mechanical system to give easy turning of the steering wheel
■ driver feel must be maintained
■ no (or very little) difference between empty and fully loaded
■ the effect of accelerating or braking when the wheels are turned
■ the front wheels should have a natural tendency to return to the straight ahead position.

Imagine a car driving round a roundabout, as in Figure 14.1: the outer wheels have to travel a
greater distance than the inner wheels. This is why a differential, is needed in the transmission
system. Also notice that the inner steered wheel has to travel round a sharper corner
than the outer one.

This requirement has to be met by a car steering system. A special linkage between the two
front wheels is made so that each is turned a slightly different amount to keep them rolling
‘true’, however sharp or gentle the corner is. Running or rolling true means that the wheels
must always be turning exactly end over end, much like a coin rolling across a desk. If this was
not the case, there would be a ‘scrubbing’ action. This would result in considerable tyre wear.
The linkage set up to allow this slight difference in turning of each front wheel is known as the
‘Ackerman Linkage’, named after the person who invented the technique. The slight change in
angle between the wheels as they are steered is often known as toe out on turns.

Figure 1: Car going round a roundabout – note wheel position

 Figure 2: Steering system

Positioning the Wheels – Steering Geometry

Ackerman's Principle:
In order to ensure true rolling motion of the roadwheels, and that the front steered wheels rotate
around a common centre, the inner and the outer roadwheels must be moved to turn at different
angles when turning a curve. This is achieved by setting the steering arms at an angle, so that
their projected centre lines meet on or near the centre of the rear axle.
Basically Ackerman's principle is a method of wheel alignment that puts the two front wheels
of a car at slightly different angles. ... If the tires are not aligned properly so that they turn at
different angles, they "fight" each other during a turn, causing them to wear down faster and the
car to go slower. The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tires to slip
sideways when following the path around a curve.
The geometric principle used to provide toe-out on turns. The ends of the steering arms are
angled so that the inside wheel turns more than the outside wheel when a vehicle is making a
turn, without scrubbing the tire treads on the road surface.

Figure 3: Ackerman's principle

Toe-Out On Turns (TOOT)

When the steering wheel is turned, the inner steering arm will move the inner roadwheels
through a greater angle than the outer. The difference between them is called Toe-Out On
Turns which can be remembered by the acronym TOOT.

Figure 4: Toe-Out On Turns (TOOT)

Tracking– Toe-In and Toe-Out

As a front wheel drive car moves, the tyres pull on the road surface, taking up the small amount
of free play in the mountings and joints. For this reason, the tracking is often set toe out, so that
the wheel’s point straight ahead when the vehicle is moving. Rear wheel drive tends to make
the opposite happen because it pushes against the front wheels. The front wheels are therefore
set toe in. When the car moves, the front wheels are pushed out, taking up the slack in the
joints; the wheels again end up straight ahead. The amount of toe in or toe out is very small,
normally not exceeding 5 mm (the difference in the distance between the front and rear of the
front wheels). Correctly set tracking ensures true rolling of the wheels.
 Figure 5: Tracking – Toe-In and Toe-Out
Castor angle
The front wheels tend to straighten themselves out after cornering. This is due to a castor
action. Supermarket trolley wheels automatically run straight when pushed; this is because the
axle on which they rotate is behind the swivel mounting. Vehicle wheels get the same result by
leaning the swivel mounting back, so that the wheel axle is moved slightly behind the line of
the swivel. The further the axle is behind the swivel, the stronger will be the straightening
effect. The main reason for the castor angle is the self-centering action it produces.

Figure 6: Castor angle

Camber angle
On many cars the front wheels are not mounted vertical to the road surface. Often they are
further apart at the top than at the bottom. This is called positive camber and is done for many
reasons, such as:
■ easier steering, less turning effort required
■ less wear on the steering linkages
■ less stress on main components.
Some cars have rear wheels with negative camber. With independent suspension systems,
wheels can change their camber from positive to neutral to negative. This varies, though, with
the design and position of the suspension hinge points.

Figure 7: Camber angle

Swivel Axis Inclination or King Pin Inclination Angle
The final setting that affects the angle of the steered wheels is the swivel axis inclination: the
angle compared to vertical made by the two swivel joints when viewed from the front or rear.
On a strut type suspension system, the angle is that made by the strut. This angle always leans
in towards the middle of the vehicle. The swivel axis inclination (also called king pin
inclination) is mainly for:
■ producing a self centre action
■ improved steering control on corners
■ lighter steering action.
The purpose of the kingpin inclination KPI is to produce vertical displacement of the vehicle
during steering in an upward direction. The inclination tends to keep wheels straight ahead and
make the wheels to get return to the straight position after completion of a turn.

Figure 8: Swivel Axis or Kingpin Inclination Angle

Steering Gearboxes
The steering gearbox is incorporated into the steering mechanism for two main reasons:
 • To change the rotary movement of the steering wheel into the straight line movement of
the drag link;
• To provide a gear reduction and therefore a torque increase, thus reducing the effort required
by the driver at the steering wheel.

Quite a number of different types of steering gearboxes have been used over the years, the most
common ones being:
• Worm and roller
• Worm and peg
• Worm and sector
• Cam and peg
• Recirculating ball
• Rack and pinion

Worm and Roller

In this arrangement, the worm (in the shape of an hour glass) is formed on the inner steering
column. Meshing with the worm is a roller which is attached to the rocker shaft. As the steering
is operated the roller rotates in an arc about the rocker shaft giving the minimum amount of
backlash together with a large gear reduction. This means that for a large number of turns on
the steering wheel there is a very small number of turns on the rocker shaft, with very little free
play. Because of the specialized machining geometry and shape, the hour glass worm is really
in the form of a cam rather than a gear. This is why the arrangement is sometimes known as a
camand-roller steering gearbox. It will mainly be found on LGVs as it provides a large gear
reduction and can transmit heavy loads.

Figure 9: Worm and Roller

Cam and Peg
In the cam and peg steering box a tapered peg is used in place of the roller. This engages with a
special cam formed on the end of the inner steering column. The peg may be made to rotate on
needle roller bearings in the rocker arm to reduce friction as the steering column is rotated and
the peg moves up and down the cam.

Recirculating Ball
In this arrangement the worm is in the form of a thread machined on the inner steering column.
A nut with steel ball bearings acting as the thread operates inside the nut; as the worm rotates
the balls reduce the friction to a minimum. In many cases a half nut is used and a transfer tube
returns the balls back to the other side of the nut. A peg on the nut locates in the rocker arm
which transfers a rocking motion to the rocker shaft. A sector gear is used to transfer the
movement to the rocker shaft.

Figure 10: Worm and peg Figure 11: Recirculating ball

Rack and Pinion

This type, shown in Fig. is now probably the most common type in use on cars and light
vehicles. It has a rack which takes the place of the middle track rod and outer track rods
(sometimes called tie rods) which connect to
the steering arms at the hub. The pinion is mounted to the steering column by a universal joint
as often the steering column is not in line with the input to the steering rack. This gives ease of
mounting and operation of the gearbox. On each end of the rack is a ball joint to which the
track rod is mounted; these are spring loaded to allow for movement together with the
minimum of play in the joint. The system is arranged so that in the event of an accident the
column, because it is out of alignment (not a solid straight shaft) will tend to bend at the joints.
This helps to prevent the steering wheel from hitting the driver’s chest and causing serious
injury.

Figure 12: Rack and pinion

Ball Joints
The purpose of a ball joint is to link together two components but at the same time allow both
angular and rotational movement between them.
It transmits the movement of the steering gearbox to each stub axle.
Power Assisted Steering
Power steering is a system that reduces the driver’s effort required for steering to turn the
steering wheel. With the help of power steering, it easier for the vehicle to turn or maneuver.
The power steering unit is located at the lower end of the steering column in place of the usual
conventional steering gear. It is connected by two oil lines to the hydraulic pump mounted on
the generator. The pump with a relief valve avoids excessive oil pressures.

Figure 13: Power Assisted Steering

The power steering unit has:

• A valve body with four valves.

• Two power cylinders have pistons one on each side.

The Valves will deliver the oil to help in making a turn. This works on the endwise movement of the
steering column shaft. The steering wheel rotates the worm. Thus it imposes end-wise thrust (either
up or down) on the worm as per the direction of rotation. This creates the movement of the steering
column shaft through a small fraction of an inch.

As the valve is integral with the shaft, moves in the valve body. This action admits oil under pressure
in one or other end of the power cylinder. This makes the piston move in one or other direction. This
motion is carried to the pitman shaft through the rack and pinion arrangement.
Types of Power Assisted Steering System

There are generally five types of power steering systems:

1. Integral power steering

2. Linkage power steering
3. Hydraulic Power Assisted Steering (HPAS)
4. Electric Power Assisted Steering (EPAS)
5. Electro-hydraulic Power Assisted Steering (EHPAS)

1. Integral Power Steering

Integral power steering is made to receive power assistance when effort on the steering wheel
rim exceeds two pounds and up to five pounds.

Figure 14: Integral Power Steering

It consists of a worm-and-ball bearing nut steering gear with a hydraulic rack piston centered along
the worm shaft, which can assist in moving the nut in any direction through hydraulic pressure.
A reaction contact valve is linked to the worm shaft thrust bearing through a link and actuator lever.
Any moment of the thrust bearing causes the control valve to move which opens and closes the oil
passage between the valve body and the housing of the gear and pinion assembly.

Working Operation:

The working of the integral power steering is shown in the figure. When the vehicle is going straight-
ahead, the oil flows from the pump, through the open center of the valves, and back to the reservoir.

It also flows into the areas on both sides of the rack piston to act as a lubricant and to cushion the
road shocks. These areas are sometimes called “power cylinders”.

When the vehicle is turned to the right, the worm moves slightly down to the left, with the
reaction of the wheels, pitman shaft sector, steering linkage, and turning of the worm to the ball
nut.
The movement forces the worm against the thrust bearing and causes the actuating lever and
control valve links to move the control valve to the position shown in the figure. The fluid
passage to the right turn cylinder is broadened, while flow to the left turn cylinder is made
narrower.

Thus the flow of fluid from the pump is restricted and the pump pressure is built on the right side of
the rack position, causing the ball nut to move on the right side. The fluid in the left turn power
cylinder is forced to the pump reservoir through the return line.

When the vehicle has to take a left turn, the worm causes the fluid to enter the left-turn power
cylinder in greater quantities and empty the right-turn cylinder. This effect makes the rack piston and
ball nut to move in the left-turn direction.

2. Linkage Power Steering

In this type of power steering, the power cylinder is not part of the steering gear. It is connected to
the steering linkage. The valve assembly is tilted into the steering linkage, either as a separate
assembly or integrally with the power cylinder. The power assistance is applied directly to the
steering linkage.
The figure shows one design of the linkage power steering. In the neutral position, that is, when the
vehicle is running straight ahead, a spool valve in the control valve assembly is held in the center
position by means of a centering spring. The oil flows to both sides of the power cylinder and around
the valve band and returns to the pump reservoir.

Figure 15: Linkage Power Steering

Working Operation:

When the vehicle is turning to the left, and the force on the wheel exceeds four pounds, Pitman’s arm
moves the spool control valve with sufficient force to remove the pressure of the centering spring so
that the valve slides to the right side of the valve body.

In this position, it connects the left-hand side of the power cylinder to the return line leading to the
pump reservoir and directs oil pressure to the right-hand side of the power cylinder. This causes the
cylinder housing to move to the right, which moves the relay rod to the right in order to turn the
wheels to the left. When the vehicle is taking a right turn, the condition is reversed and the relay rod
is forced to turn the wheels to the right.
 Figure 16: Linkage Power Steering

1. 3. Hydraulic Power Assisted Steering (HPAS)

This type of power steering practiced from the 1950s to 2000s was hydraulic assistance. There are
some downsides to this type of system, it wastes energy, as the pump is running continuously, even
when the vehicle is running directly and no further assistance is required.

In this hydraulic system with hydraulic pumps driven by engines and hydraulic cylinders are utilized
to increase the steering wheel input force which decreases the effort required to drive the front
wheels of the vehicle.
 Figure 17: Hydraulic Power Assisted Steering (HPAS)

Working Operation:
When the operator gives input by rotating the steering wheel, the hydraulic pump driven by the
engine starts pumping the compressed hydraulic fluid by means of lines. The hydraulic pressure
given by the pump inserts the hydraulic cylinder which applies pressure to the piston.

Now the piston which is in high pressure begins moving from one end to the other which pushes the
fluid forward through the forward lines, with this action of the piston the input force exerted by the
driver is repeated many times.

The high-pressure fluid carried by the hydraulic cylinder then exerts pressure on the connected pinion
via a coupling mechanism which applies force to the rack gear and the steering action occurs in the
front wheels.

Advantages
1. It reduces the effort required by the driver on the steering wheel.
2. It provides easy and softer steering control even in heavy duty vehicle.
3. Mechanical wear of components is reduced due to the use of fluid in the steering
gearbox.
Disadvantages
1. Since the power-steering pump equipped on most vehicles runs constantly and pumps
fluid all the time, it wastes engine power.
2. This wasted power translates into wasted fuel and higher emissions.
3. This system is susceptible to leaks and noises, and commonly results in failure due to a
broken belt.

4. Electric Power Assisted Steering (EPAS)

Electric power assisted steering (EPAS) is the model in today’s new cars. It is the most advanced
type of power steering system. In this, the hydraulic system is fully restored with electric motors and
sensors from hydraulic power steering.

Rather than using hydraulic force, the motor powered by the vehicle’s battery uses the force on the
steering gear. The steering gear and torque provided by the motor are controlled by the sensor
detecting the position of the steering column.

Figure 18: Electric Power Assisted Steering

 Working Operation:

When the driver provides the input through the steering wheel, the electronic sensors connected to
the steering column read the input and send them to the vehicle’s electric control unit.

The vehicle’s ECU analyzes these inputs and gives a voltage signal to the electric motor located at
the end of the steering column that gears are in a continuous mesh with the pinion gear.

These voltage signals sent by the ECU start the motor driven by the vehicle’s battery and provide
special torque according to the value of the received voltage signals.

The motor is followed by a gear that is in constant mesh with the pinion gear, which begins to
transmit manifold torque to the pinion gear which uses torque to the rack through which it is
connected. With this torque mounted by the pinion on the rack, the rack moves which rotates the
front wheels as required.

Advantages

EPS provides many additional advantages. The amount of assistance provided by EPS is easily
tuneable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver preference. Another benefit is the
elimination of environmental hazards posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering
fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic
assistance stops working if the engine stops.

5. Electro-hydraulic Power Assisted Steering

Among the hydraulic and electric types of power steering, there is a hybrid of the two systems known
as electrohydraulic. It works like a hydraulic-assist system, only the hydraulic motor is produced by
an electric motor rather than running the pump from the engine.
This relieves the previously reported wasted-energy complaint but does not allow all possible
features with electric power steering. Only a few vehicles currently use this system, including some
heavy pickup trucks.

Figure 19: Electro-hydraulic Power Assisted Steering

Manual Steering Vs Power Steering

The differences between the manual steering and power steering system:

Power steering is a system that helps in steering the wheels utilizing the source of power. Whereas
Manual steering is a system in which manual force is utilized for steering.

The mechanism used in power steering is hydraulic and electric power. The hydraulic power
steering contains rack and pinion, recirculating ball and nut, worm and roller, hydrostatic and electric
power steering contains Rack and pinion, column driven EPS, pinion driven EPS, Rack driven EPS.
Manual steering, it uses a rack and pinion, worm and roller, and recirculation ball and nut.
The elements used in power steering is a hydraulic pump, fluid reservoir, hoses, lines; and either a
power assist unit mounted on or integral with, a power steering gear assembly. Whereas manual
steering has a steering wheel and column, a manual gearbox and rack & pinion assembly, steering
knuckles and ball joints, and the wheel spindle assemblies.

Power steering has a quick response. As compared to manual steering, it has a slow response.

The resistance to wheel movement of the power steering is less. As compared to manual steering,
the resistance to move movement is more.

Power steering is preferred in heavyweight vehicles. As compared to manual steering, it is

preferred in low weight vehicles.

The benefits of using power steering are Absorbs road shocks, minimum efforts, greater safety, and
controllability under critical situations. Manual steering provides a mechanical connection between
steering and wheel all the components remain to be fixed without the help of the auxiliary power and
preferred in race cars.

Advantages of Power Steering

Following are the advantages of power steering:

1. It prevents the wheel from transferring the loading to the steering column.
2. Power steering reduces driver fatigue.
3. It lowers the input torque and continuous steering function.
4. In power steering, the oil output is directly proportional to steer speed.

Disadvantages of Power Steering

Following are the disadvantages of power steering:

1. The design of the power steering is complicated.

2. Power steering is costly than the manual steering
3. It has a fluid leakage problem.
Understeer and Oversteer

Understeer and oversteer are vehicle dynamics terms used to describe the sensitivity of a
vehicle to steering. Oversteer is what occurs when a car turns by more than the amount
commanded by the driver. Conversely, understeer is what occurs when a car steers less than the
amount commanded by the driver.

Understeer occurs when the front wheels start to plow straight even if you turn the steering, and
oversteer occurs when the back of the car is being fishtailed. Understeer is more common to
front car drives while oversteer is common on rear-wheel vehicle

Understeer: the car does not turn enough and leaves the road

Oversteer: the car turns more sharply than intended and could get into a spin
 WHEELS AND TYRES
Introduction
Together with the tyre, a road wheel must support the weight of the vehicle and be capable of
withstanding a number of side thrusts when cornering and torsional forces when driving. Road
wheels must be strong, but light in weight. They must be cheap to produce, easy to clean, and
simple to remove and refit.

Types of road wheels

Three main types of road wheels are in service on modern light vehicles:
▪ Pressed steel Wheels
▪ Cast alloy Wheels
▪ Spoked or Wire wheels

Pressed Steel Wheel

The centre of pressed steel wheels is made by pressing a disc into a dish shape to give it greater
strength. The rim is a rolled section which is circled and welded. The rim is normally welded to
the flange of the centre disc. The centre disc has a number of slots under the rim. This is for
ventilation to the brakes as well as the wheel itself. This type of wheel is cheap to produce and
strong.
45
D. K. ANSAH
The bead of a tyre is made from wire, which cannot be stretched for fitting or removal. The wheel
rim must therefore be designed to hold the tyre in place, but also to allow for easy removal. This is
done by using a ‘well base’ in the rim. For tyre removal one bead must be forced into the well.
The other bead can then be levered over the edge of the rim. The bead seats are made with a taper
so that, as the tyre is inflated, the bead is forced up the taper by the air pressure. This locks the tyre
on to the rim, making a good seal.

Cast Alloy Wheel

A large number of vehicles are fitted with wheels made from light alloy. Wheels of this type are
generally produced from aluminium alloy castings, which are then machine finished. The main
advantage of cast alloy road wheels is their light weight, and of course they look good. The
disadvantages are their lower resistance to corrosion, and that they are more prone to accidental
damage. The general shape of the wheel, as far as tyre fitting is concerned, is much the same as the
pressed steel type.

Spoked or Wire Wheels

These are wheels that are built up in a similar way to spoked bicycle wheels. Figure 3 shows a
typical wire wheel. They are normally to be found on sports cars motor bikes and bicycled. They

Figure 1: Pressed Steel Wheel Figure 2: Alloy Wheel Figure 3: A wire (spoked)
wheel

46
Tyres

The tyre performs three basic functions:

▪ It acts as the primary suspension, cushioning the vehicle from the effects of a rough surface.
▪ It provides frictional contact with the road surface. This allows the driving wheels to move the
vehicle.
▪ The tyres also allow the front wheels to steer and the brakes to slow or stop the vehicle.

The tyre is a flexible casing which contains air. Tyres are manufactured from reinforced synthetic
rubber. The tyre is made of an inner layer of fabric plies which are wrapped around bead wires at
the inner edges. The bead wires hold the tyre in position on the wheel rim. The fabric plies are
coated with rubber, which is moulded to form the side walls and the tread of the tyre. Behind the
tread is a reinforcing band, usually made of steel, rayon, or glass fibre. Modern tyres are mostly
tubeless, so they have a thin layer of rubber coating the inside to act as a seal.

Figure 4: High performance tyres

47
Cross-ply tyre
Figure 6 shows part of a cross-ply tyre. The plies are placed one upon the other and each adjoining
ply has the bias angle of the cords running in opposite directions. The angle between the cords is
approximately 100_ and the cords in each ply make an angle of approximately 40_ with the tyre
bead and wheel rim.

Radial-ply tyre
Figure 5 shows part of a radial-ply tyre. The plies are constructed so that the cords of the tyre wall
run at right angles to the tyre bead and wheel rim.
Construction of a Tubeless Radial Tyre
The wheel is made with a leak proof rim, and the valve is rubber mounted into a hole formed in
the well of the rim. The tyre is made with an accurate bead which fits tightly on to the rim. A thin
rubber layer in the interior of the tyre makes an air tight seal. The plies of a radial tyre pass from
bead to bead at 90° to the circumference, or radially. A rigid belt band, consisting of several layers
of textile or metallic threads, runs round the tyre under the tread. Steel wire is often used in the
construction of radial tyres. The radial tyre is flexible but retains high strength. It has good road
holding and cornering power. In addition, radial tyres are economical due to their low ‘rolling
resistance’.

48
Cross-ply versus radial-ply tyre
Radial-ply tyres have a more flexible side wall and this, together with the braced tread, ensures
that a greater area of tread remains in contact with the road when the vehicle is cornering.
Figure 7 shows the difference between cross-ply and radial-ply tyres when the vehicle is
cornering. In effect, radial-ply tyres produce a better grip. It is this remarkable difference between
the performance of cross-ply and radial-ply tyres that leads to the rules about mixing of cross-ply
and radial-ply tyres on a vehicle. Cross-ply tyres on the front axle and radial-ply tyres on the rear
axle are the only combination that can be used.

Figure 5: Radial ply tyre

Figure 6: Cross ply tyre Fig. 7: Cross-ply and radial-ply tyres

under cornering conditions

49
Advantages of Radial Tyres
A major advantage of a radial tyre are:
1. The side walls are more flexible. This enables more of the tyre’s tread pattern to remain in contact with
the road surface, particularly when cornering.
2. Its greatly improved grip even on wet roads. This is because the rigid belt band holds the tread flat on
the road surface when cornering. The rigid belt band also helps with the escape of water from under the
tyre.
3. The radial tyre is flexible but retains high strength.
4. Radial tyres are economical due to their low ‘rolling resistance’.

Tubed and Tubeless Tyres

As the name suggests, a tube tyre consists of a tube of air that is placed inside the tyre. The air acts as a
cushion and makes driving over bumpy roads a bit smoother. It also maintains the shape of the tyre and most
importantly supports the weight of the vehicle, keeping it stable.

On the other hand, a tubeless tyre weighs less and reduces un-sprung weight of the vehicle. This gives you
superior handling characteristics and inspires confidence in the driver. The overall result a better driving
experience!

However, the advantages of driving on a set of tubeless tyres far outweigh tubes. This is especially visible
when a tyre gets punctured. With a sudden loss of air pressure, your car can get unstable and swerve,
eventually leading to an accident. In similar condition, a tubeless tyre would lose its air slowly and
uniformly, thus giving the driver ample time to slow the vehicle down.

Advantages of tubeless tyres

1. Ability to Run at Lower Pressure
Air does change its pressure inside the tube or the tyre, and it is common for tyres to run at lower
pressures. Again, a tube will get pinched when the pressure is low, leading to a puncture. This is not
the case with tubeless tyres.
2. Liquid Sealant
Tubeless tyres have the advantage to be filled with liquid sealants. If a sharp object does put a hole in
a tubeless tyre, the liquid sealant immediately oozes out and dries up, sealing the hole. This enables
you to travel longer, without having to stop to fix a puncture.
50
 3. Air Escapes Slowly
In case you do encounter a puncture and the air leaks, it will leak very slowly in a tubeless tyre,
which gives you enough time to pull safely over on the side of the road. A tube will let out air
immediately, which might be dangerous on a highway or at high speeds.
4. Light Weight
Tubeless tyres are lighter compared to tube type tyres, which in turn affects the mileage of the
vehicle. Heavy components on the vehicle will demand more power from the engine, and this
requires more fuel to burn.
5. No Unwanted Friction
While driving at high speeds, a tube type tyre will have friction with the tyre, which increases the
temperature of the tube and there are chances of the tube exploding. A tyre/ tube explosion at high
speeds calls for disaster. Tubeless tyres do not have this risk.
6. Stability
Since air is contained in the tubeless tyre itself, and not in the tube, driving at high speeds will be
stable as the air in the tyre is also stable. With a tube, there are chances of uneven pressure, which
will make the car wobble at high speeds. Also, since a tube type tyre has more components (tyre,
tube, rim) compared to a tubeless tyre (tyre and rim), performance and efficiency are better with a
tubeless tyre.
7. Less Roadside Stoppage
It is less likely to cause roadside stoppage for punctures.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult to fit
Tubeless tyres are difficult to fit on the rim. It takes longer to fit a tubeless tyre since it has to be
airtight against the rim or it will not hold air. Tubeless tyres have to be fit by an expert so that the
rims do not get damaged. If at all you have had a puncture and the tyre is flat, not everybody will fix
it. Fixing punctures in a tubeless tyre needs special equipment, which not many will have.
2. Sidewall puncture
The sidewall of the tyre is a dangerous place to have a puncture. In a tube type tyre, you can change
the tube and carry on, but a tubeless tyre will need to be changed if damaged or even discarded
depending on situations.

51
 3. Not cheap
Tubeless tyres are not cheap, compared to tube type tyres, since components used are different.
4. It cannot be easily used for wire or spoked wheels

The Legal Bit About Tyres

It is dangerous to mix cross ply and radial ply tyres on a vehicle. Only very old vehicles use cross ply
tyres, so this is not a problem you are likely to come across. The safest and best method is often to fit
radial tyres all round. However, you must refer to manufacturers’ recommendations if in any doubt. It
is an offence to use a light vehicle on the road if any of its tyres have any of the following faults:
• A tread pattern depth of less than 1.5 mm throughout at least 75% of the tread width and no visible
tread on the rest.
• A cut deep enough to reach the fabric and measuring in excess of 25 mm or 10% of the section width
of the tyre, whichever is the greater.
• A lump or bulge caused by separation or other structural fault.
• Any portion of the ply or cord body is exposed.
• It has been re-cut or re-grooved.
• It is not suitable for the use to which the vehicle is being put, or to the type of tyres fitted to its other
wheels.
• It is incorrectly inflated.
• Tyres of different types of construction are fitted to the same axle.

Tyre sizes and markings

Markings on the sides of tyres are quite considerable and can be a little confusing. The following is a
list of the information given on modern tyres. The size, speed and load headings will be examined in a
little more detail.
■ Size (e.g. 195/55–15)
■ Speed rating (eg. H, V, Z)
■ Load index (e.g. 84, 89, 92)
■ UTQG ratings (Temperature, Traction, Tread wear)
■ M&S designation
■ Max. load
■ Max. press
■ Type of construction

52
■ EU approval mark
■ US approval mark
■ Manufacture date.
A tyre’s size is expressed in the format WWW/AA–DD (Eg. 195/55–15):
■ WWW is the tyre’s sidewall to sidewall width in millimetres (195).
■ AA is the aspect ratio or profile. This gives the tyre’s height as a percentage of its width (55% of
195 = 107 mm).
■ DD is the diameter of the wheel in inches (15 inches). Some tyres now also give this in millimetres.
If the size is shown as P205/60R15, the ‘P’ stands for ‘Passenger’ and the ‘R’ is for ‘Radial ply’
construction.
For an older tyre without an aspect ratio (e.g. 175R13), it is assumed to be about an 80 series tyre (e.g.
175/80R13). The practice of listing the aspect ratio is becoming more common. The speed rating was
traditionally shown as a part of the tyre’s size (e.g. 195/55VR15). Since the inclusion of load ratings,
many manufacturers now show the speed rating after the size, in combination with the load rating (e.g.
195/55R15 84V).
Load and Speed Ratings
The tyre load and speed ratings are the figures and letters that refer to the maximum load and speed
rating of a tyre. For example, 82S marked on a tyre means a load index of 82 and a speed index of S.
In this case the 82 means a load capacity of 475 kg per tyre and the S relates to a maximum speed of
180 km/h or 113 mph. One of the main points about these markings is that they assist in ensuring that
only tyres of the correct specification are fitted to a vehicle.

The load index indicates the maximum weight the tyre can carry at the maximum speed indicated by
its speed rating. Some ‘load rating indices’ are listed in the following table.

53
Commonly used load rating or index include:

Commonly used speed ratings include:

54
 Figure 8: Typical tyre markings

Tyre Faults and Maintenance

Road hazards like potholes, glass and nails and other objects are usually unavoidable. There are,
however, three main causes of tyre problems that are avoidable: incorrect inflation pressure,
speeding and overloading. Taking a proactive measure to avoid them will ensure safer driving and
longer tyre life.

Driving at Speed

Driving at high speeds has a greater chance of causing tyre damage than at low speeds. If contact is
made with a road hazard, it has a greater chance of causing tyre damage.

Driving at speed will cause a greater build-up of heat in the tyre, which can cause tyre damage and
increases the wear rate of the tyre. It can also contribute to sudden tyre destruction and rapid air loss if
the tyres are not properly maintained. Failure to control a vehicle if a tyre experiences sudden air loss
can lead to an accident. If you see any damage to a tyre or wheel, replace it with your spare tyre at
once, then have it checked by a tyre specialist. This will alleviate any tyre problems.

55
Overloading

To ensure that your tyres are not overloaded, read the load index of your tyres, which is found on the
tyre sidewall. Do not exceed the load capacity relative to this load index. Tyres that are loaded beyond
their maximum loads can build up excessive heat that may result in sudden tyre destruction. Also
follow your manufacturer’s loading recommendations. Do not exceed the maximum axle load rating
for any axle on your vehicle. You can find on most cars/SUV/4WD the recommended tyre pressure
and load your tyres can carry on the tyre placard. This is usually found on the front driver’s door
pillar. Some of the other places can be the glove box, inside the fuel flap, under the bonnet around the
radiator support or next to the cars identification placard.

Tyre inflation pressures

The pressure at which the tyres should be set is determined by a number of factors such as:
■ load to be carried
■ number of plies
■ operating conditions
■ section of the tyre.
Tyre pressures must be set at the manufacturer’s recommended values. Pressure will vary according to
the temperature of the tyre – this is affected by operating conditions. Tyre pressure should always be
adjusted when the tyre is cold and be checked at regular intervals.

It is air that carries the total load of the vehicle and passengers, so correct inflation pressure is essential
to ensure the integrity of the tyre and the safe handling of the car. Tyres that are under inflated or over
inflated can affect your tyre life, driving performance, comfort, handling and braking.

Over Inflation and Under Inflation

Over Inflation

Over inflation can reduce tyre life, reduce grip and create irregular wear and can cause excess stresses
on your cars suspension components. Over inflation reduces the ability of the tyre to absorb road
shocks, resulting in a much harsher ride. In fact, excessive over inflation may lead to impact fracture,
or other casing failures. Over inflation will also cause excessive wear of the centre of the tyre. This

56
will result in premature removal of the tyre. Check the tyre placard for recommended inflation
pressures.

Figure 9: Tyre Inflation Pressures

Pressures should be checked regularly, preferably monthly, when tyres are cold. Never reduce air
pressure when tyres are hot from driving because it is normal for pressures to increase while tyres are
hot. After checking pressures, ensure that valve caps are replaced as these are the primary seal. Use
only metal-type valve caps as they are the best to give you the ultimate seal.

Under Inflation

Under inflation is a frequent cause of tyre damage. Under inflation causes excessive flexing in the tyre,
which builds up internal heat and may eventually weaken the casing. It will also cause rapid shoulder
and irregular tread wear. Under inflation generates excessive flexing of the tyre casing, which results
in overheating, increase of rolling resistance and premature wear. In extreme cases, under inflation can
cause tyre damage. Check the tyre placard for recommended inflation pressures.

Under-inflated tyres can potentially result in: -

• reduced vehicle handling
• increased braking distance
• increased likelihood of blowouts
• increased tyre wear
• increased fuel consumption

57
What is the Correct Tyre Pressure?

You can find on most cars/SUV/4WD the recommended tyre pressure and load your tyres can carry on
the tyre placard. This is usually found on the front driver’s door pillar. Some of the other places can be
the clove box, inside the fuel flap, under the bonnet around the radiator support or next to the cars
identification placard.

Tyre Faults
The following table lists some of the faults which can occur if tyres and/or the vehicle are not
maintained correctly.

Figure 10: Tyre Faults

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Tread Wear Indicators (TWI)
Tyres carry lateral ridges (bars) 1.6mm high in the grooves between the treads at intervals around the
tyre. The purpose of these tread wear indicators is to show when the tyre tread is reaching its
minimum depth. Their position on the tyre is marked by the letters TWI on the tyre wall, near the
tread.

Wheel and Tyre Balance

Unbalanced wheels give rise to vibrations that affect the steering and suspension, they can be
dangerous and, if not rectified, can lead to wear and damage to components. Wheel balance can be
affected in many ways; for example, a damaged wheel or tyre caused by hitting the kerb. Such damage
must be rectified immediately and when the repair has been made the wheel and tyre assembly must
be re-balanced. A wheel balancer is a standard item of garage equipment. When new tyres are fitted,
or if wheels are being moved around on the vehicle to balance tyre wear, the wheel and tyre assembly
should be checked and, if necessary, rebalance.

Tyre Maintenance
Tyre Pressures
Tyre pressures have an effect on the steering, braking and general control of a vehicle and it is
important to ensure that pressures are maintained at the correct level for the conditions that the vehicle
is operating in. In addition to affecting vehicle handling, tyre pressures have an effect on the useful life
of a tyre.

Inspecting Tyres for Wear and Damage

Tyres can be damaged in a number of ways, such as running over sharp objects, impact with a kerb, or
collision with another vehicle. Tyre damage can also be caused by incorrect tyre pressures, badly
adjusted steering track and accidental damage that has affected steering geometry angles, such as
castor and camber.
Inflation Pressures on Tread Wear Patterns
In addition to checking tyre tread depth, the walls and casing of the tyre should be thoroughly
examined. Tread wear patterns are a guide to the probable cause of a problem. For example, under-
inflated tyres produce more wear at the outer edges because the centre of the tread is pushed up into
59
the tyre. Over-inflated tyres wear at the centre of the tread because that is where most of the load is
carried.

Steering Track, Camber

Toe-In
Figure 11 shows an axle and wheel arrangement where the front wheels have toe-in. In this diagram,
the outer edges of the tyre are referred to as the shoulders. If the amount of toe-in is too great, the tyre
tread will wear in a feathered edge at the outer shoulder.

Figure 11: Steering Toe-In.

Toe-out
If the wheels have excessive toe-out, instead of toe-in, the tyre tread will wear in a feathered edge at
the inner shoulder. (A feathered edge is a thin layer of rubber that projects outwards away from the
tread.)

Camber
Excessive positive camber, where the wheel tilts out at the top, causes the tyre to wear at the outer
shoulder. Excessive negative camber causes the tyre to wear at the inner shoulder. Incorrect camber
angle also affects the steering, because the vehicle will pull in the direction of the wheel that has the
greatest camber angle.

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 Figure 12: Steering Camber Angle.
Wheel Balance
Wheel balancing is the process of balancing the weight of a tire and wheel assembly so that it travels
evenly at high speeds. Balancing requires putting a mounted wheel and tire on a balancer, which
centers the wheel and spins it to determine where the weights should go. Every time a wheel is first
mounted onto a vehicle with a new tire, it has to be balanced. The goal is to make sure the weight is
evenly distributed throughout each of the wheels and tires on a vehicle. This process evens out heavy
and light spots in a wheel, so that it rotates smoothly. If there is even a slight difference in weight in
the wheels, it will cause enough momentum to create a vibration in the car.

In fact, wheels and tires are never exactly the same weight all around. The wheel's valve stem hole will
usually subtract a small amount of weight from that side of the wheel. Tires will also have slight weight
imbalances, whether from a joining point of the cap plies or a slight deviation from perfectly round. At high
speeds, even a tiny imbalance in weight can become a large imbalance in outward force, which could cause
the wheel and tire assembly to spin in a heavy and uneven motion. This usually turns into a vibration in the
car as well that could cause uneven and damaging wear on the tires. If not corrected, the out-of-balance
wheel can result in excessive vibrations of both the suspension and steering components.

Maintaining proper wheel balance is a critical part of maintaining the life of the tire. Also, proper wheel
balancing ensures your vehicle has a smooth and vibration free ride. Out-of-balance forces to which a wheel
may be subject are static imbalance and dynamic imbalance

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Static Imbalance

When a wheel is allowed to turn freely, and one part of it always comes to rest at the bottom, the wheel is
said to be statically out of balance. Static imbalance is caused by a heavy spot in the wheel assembly, which
always comes to rest at the lowest point if the wheel is allowed to spin freely.

If not corrected, this will cause the suspension to move up and down when the vehicle is traveling at speed.

Dynamic Imbalance

Varying mass within the tyre and wheel assembly can give rise to dynamic imbalance. It is noticeable as a
steering vibration or even wheel wobble at speeds, often between about 70km/h (43 mph) and 90 km/h (56
mph).

A wheel may be balanced statically but still cause violent wheel movements at high speeds. This is because
the heaviest part is to one side of, and not on, the centre plane of the wheel. The action of centrifugal force,
through the off-centre heaviest part, causes the wheel to pivot left and right, and, as it in and out, as it
rotates. This violent and uncontrollable movement is known as wheel wobble or shimmy.

Wheel Hop

Without a suspension properly built and tuned for drag racing, wheel hop is an inevitability. Wheel hop is
the result of your car's wheels moving more freely than they should within the wheel wells, resulting in them
failing to stay in perfect contact with the ground. This results in a jerky, sometimes violent motion as you
attempt to launch your car. Not only does this cost you seconds down the quarter mile, but it can even result
in damage to drivetrain components.

Wheel hop can be caused by a variety of things, from the wrong shocks to a better surface than the tire can
handle or more power than the tire can handle, but the biggest thing that we really see is bushing deflection
within the suspension system.

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 BRAKING SYSTEMS
Introduction
The purpose of the braking system is to slow down or stop the vehicle and, when the vehicle is
stationary, to hold the vehicle in the chosen position. It does this by converting the kinetic energy to
heat, which is then given up to the surroundings air as it flows past the brakes. The conversion of
energy is achieved by friction which is the resistance to movement of one object sliding over the
another.

When a vehicle is moving it contains energy of motion (kinetic energy) and the function of the braking
system is to convert this kinetic energy into heat energy. It does so through the friction at the brake
linings and the brake drum, or the brake pads and the disc.
Some large vehicles are fitted with secondary braking systems that are known as retarders. Examples
of retarders are exhaust brakes and electric brakes. In all cases, the factor that ultimately determines
how much braking can be applied is the grip of the tyres on the driving surface.

The Functions and Conditions of Use of a Brake System

In order to understand the behaviour of a braking system it is useful to define three separate functions
that must be fulfilled at all times:
(a) The braking system must decelerate a vehicle in a controlled and repeatable fashion and when
appropriate cause the vehicle to stop.
(b) The braking system should permit the vehicle to maintain a constant speed when travelling
downhill.
(c) The braking system must hold the vehicle stationary when on a flat or on a gradient.

When simply stated, as above, the importance of the role played by the brakes/braking system in
controlling the vehicle motion is grossly understated. Consideration of the diverse conditions under
which the brakes must operate leads to a better appreciation of their role. These include, but are not
limited to, the following:
• slippery wet and dry roads.
• rough or smooth road;
• split friction surfaces;
• straight line braking or when braking on a curve;
• wet or dry brakes;

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 • new or worn linings;
• laden or unladen vehicle;
• vehicle pulling a trailer or caravan;
• frequent or infrequent applications of short or lengthy duration;
• high or low rates of deceleration;
• skilled or unskilled drivers.

Clearly the brakes, together with the steering components and tyres, represent the most important
accident avoidance systems present on a motor vehicle which must reliably operate under various
conditions. The effectiveness of any braking system is, however, limited by the amount of traction
available at the tyre–road interface.

There are four main stages involved in the design of a brake system. The first, and perhaps most
fundamental stage, is the choice of brake force distribution between the axles of the vehicle. This is
primarily a function of the vehicle dimensions and its weight distribution.

Next is the design of the transmission system and this activity embraces the sizing of the master
cylinder together with the front and rear wheel cylinders. Additional components, such as special
valves that modulate the hydraulic pressure applied to each wheel are physically accounted for at this
stage.

The foundation brakes form the focus of the third stage of the process. As well as being able to react
the applied loads and torques, the foundation brakes must be endowed with adequate thermal
performance, wear and noise characteristics.

The last phase in the process results in the incorporation of the pedal assembly and vacuum boost
system into the brake system. To accomplish this design task, the engineer requires access to several
fundamental vehicle parameters. These include:
• laden and unladen vehicle mass;
• static weight distribution when laden and unladen;
• wheelbase;
• height of centre of gravity when laden and unladen;
• maximum vehicle speed;
• tyre and rim size;

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 • vehicle function;
• braking standards.
It is essential to recognize that each of the preceding stages are closely linked and that the final design
will take many iterations to realize. Thus any formal methodology must be designed so as not to
compromise the overall system quality that could result from design changes at the component level.
By way of example, a reduction in
package space could lead to smaller diameter wheel brakes having to be fitted to the vehicle. This will
change the brake force distribution unless checked, by say resizing the wheel cylinders, and in the
worst case this could lead to premature wheel lock and a violation of the governing legislation.

Types of Brakes
Two basic types of friction brakes are in common use on vehicles; these are:
1. the drum brake
2. the disc brake

The Drum Brake

Figure 1 shows the layout of a simple hydraulic drum brake system employing twin leading shoe drum
brakes at the front and single leading shoe drum brakes at the rear. The leading shoe is the one whose
leading edge comes into contact with the drum first, in the direction of rotation. A leading shoe is
more powerful than a trailing shoe and this shows up in the wear pattern because a leading shoe
generally wears more than a trailing shoe owing to the extra work that it does. The road wheel is
attached to the brake drum by means of the wheel studs and nuts.

The system can be said to consist of two main elements: a master cylinder and a wheel cylinder. The
master cylinder converts the driver’s efforts on the brake pedal into hydraulic pressure, and the wheel
cylinder converts the hydraulic pressure into effort to move the brake shoes into contact with the brake
drum. The master cylinder and the wheel cylinder are connected together by metal pipes and flexible
holes.

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 Figure 1: Basic Drum Brake System

Leading and Trailing Shoe Drum Brake System

Operation:
When the brake is applied, one piston is moved to push the brake shoe out in the same direction as the
drum rotation. This is known as the leading shoe. The drum rotation helps to pull this shoe into harder
contact with the drum and increases the driver’s effort. This is known as self-servo action.

The other shoe is pushed against the direction of drum rotation and is called trailing shoe. When the
trailing shoe is pushed into contact with the drum the reverse is true: the drum rotation tries to push the
shoe away. This results in les braking effort than the that provided by the leading shoe.
This type of arrangement is often used for the rear wheel brakes because it can easily incorporate both
mechanical and hydraulic method of operation.

Advantages of Leading and Trailing Shoe Drum Brake:

1. it is relatively simple in construction.
2. The same braking power is available in reverse as well as when going forward.
3. Good braking power in reverse for vehicles that carry or pull heavy loads.

Disadvantages:
1. One disadvantage is Where a vehicle is always driving forward, the shoes wear unevenly because the
leading shoes do more work.
Some manufacturers have tried to overcome this by making the frictional lining on the leading
shoe thicker than that on the trailing shoe.
2. It requires larger effort at the pedal than are needed by two leading shoes arrangement.

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Twin Leading Shoe Drum Brake System
In this layout both brake shoes are forced into contact with the drum in the same direction of normal
drum rotation. To achieve this, two expander units are used. Each shoe rest on a separate pivot, the
other end being moved by its own expander.

Advantages:
1. Both shoes now have the leading shoe self-servo effect, which gives a greater stopping force for a
given size of brake drum.
2. Compared with the leading and trailing shoe arrangement a more powerful braking effort is achieved
for the same pedal pressure.
3. Less driver’s effort is required at the pedal.

Disadvantages:
1. The operating mechanisms are more complex because it requires two expanders.
2. When the vehicle is reversing, the two leading shoes become trailing shoes, which results in poor
braking performance.

Vehicles with twin leading brake shoes on the front often have leading and trailing shoes at the rear to
provide some self-servo effort when the vehicle is reversed.

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Figure 2: Operation of leading and trailing shoe drum brake system: (a) at rest; (b) brake pedal
pressed.

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Wheel Cylinders
The hydraulic cylinders that push the drum brake shoes apart, or apply the clamping force in the disc
brake, are the wheel cylinders. There are two principal types of wheel cylinders, a single acting
cylinder and a double acting cylinder.

The Single Acting Wheel Cylinder

The space in the wheel cylinder, behind the rubber seal and piston, is filled with brake fluid. Pressure
from the master cylinder is applied to the wheel cylinders through pipes. Increased fluid pressure
pushes the piston out and this force is applied to the brake shoe or brake pad.

Double Acting Wheel Cylinder

Figure 3 (b) shows that the double acting wheel cylinder has two pistons and rubber seals. Hydraulic
pressure applied between the pistons pushes them apart. The pistons then act on the brake shoes and
moves the linings into contact with the inside of the brake drum.

Figure 3: Wheel cylinders: (a) single acting; (b) double acting.

Figure 4: Exploded view of double acting wheel cylinder.

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The Disc Brake
Figure 5 shows the principle of the disc brake. The road wheel is attached to the disc and the slowing
down or stopping action is achieved by the clamping action of the brake pads on the disc.

In this brake the disc is gripped by the two friction pads. When hydraulic pressure is applied to the
hydraulic cylinder in the caliper body, the pressure acts on the piston and pushes the brake pad into
contact with the disc. This creates a reaction force which causes the pins to slide in the carrier bracket
and this action pulls the other pad into contact with the disc so that the disc is tightly clamped by both
pads.

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 Figure 5: A disc brake

Hydraulic Operation of Brakes

The main braking systems on cars and most light commercial vehicles are operated by hydraulic
systems. At the heart of a hydraulic braking system is the master cylinder as this is where the pressure
that operates the brakes is generated.

Principle of the Hydraulic System

The small diameter master cylinder is connected to the large diameter actuating cylinder by a strong
metal pipe. The cylinders and the pipe are filled with hydraulic fluid. When a force is applied to the
master cylinder piston a pressure is created that is the same at all parts of the interior of the system.
Because pressure is the amount of force acting on each square millimetre of surface, the force exerted
on the larger piston will be greater than the force applied to the small piston. In the example shown in
Fig. 6. The force of 100 Newtons on an area of 400 square millimetres of the master cylinder piston
creates a pressure of 0.25 Newtons per square millimetre. The piston of the actuating cylinder has an
area of 800 square millimetres and this gives a force of 200 Newtons at this cylinder.

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Figure 6: The principle of a hydraulic braking system. The hydraulic pressure is equal at all parts
of the system

The Master Cylinder

The part of the hydraulic braking system where the hydraulic operating pressure is generated is the
master cylinder. Force is applied to the master cylinder piston by the action of the driver’s foot on the
brake pedal.

In the example shown in Fig. 7 the action is as follows. When force is applied to the push rod the
piston moves along the bore of the master cylinder to take up slack. As soon as the lip of the main
rubber seal has covered the by-pass hole, the fluid in the cylinder, and the system to which it is
connected, is pressurised. When the force on the brake pedal and the master cylinder push rod is
released, the return spring pushes the piston back and the hydraulic operating pressure is removed. The
action of the main piston seal ensures that the master cylinder remains filled with fluid.

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Figure. 7: A simple type of hydraulic master cylinder

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 Drum brake – basic principle

Figure 8: Drum brake

Figure 8 shows the basic principle of a drum brake with one leading shoe and one trailing shoe.
The actuating force P is provided by a hydraulic cylinder or cam. The shoes are pivoted at A1 and A2.
The action of force P creates a friction force between the rotating brake drum and the brake lining.
The friction force on the leading shoe is 𝜇F and it acts tangentially to the drum. On the trailing shoe
the friction force is 𝜇F1. The pivots are distance y from the centre of the drum and the actuator force P
is at distance X from the pivots. The drum radius is R.

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Action of the leading shoe
Taking moments about pivot A1, Px = Fy−𝜇FR
𝐹𝑋
𝐹= (1)
(𝑦−𝜇𝑅

Action of the trailing shoe

Taking moments about pivot A2, Px = F1y+𝜇F1R

𝑃𝑋
𝐹1 = (2)
𝑦+𝜇𝑅

The effective braking force on the leading shoe is greater than that on the trailing shoe. It should be
noted that this effect is dependent on the direction of rotation of the brake drum, which is the reason
why two leading shoe brakes are less effective when reversing a vehicle.

Example 1
In a certain drum brake the distance x as shown in Figure 7 (b) is 12 cm, the distance y is 24 cm and
the drum radius R = 14cm. If the actuating force P is 800 newtons and the coefficient of friction 𝜇 =
0.4 calculate the effective friction forces on each of the brake shoes.

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Disc brake
The disc brake shown in Figure 9.8 utilises opposed cylinders to apply force to the friction pads and
these pads apply a clamping force to the disc. In Figure 9.8 the following data apply: hydraulic
pressure is P N/m2; area of the pistons is A m2; the coefficient of friction between the pads and the
disc is; the effective radius of the brake is R m. The hydraulic force on each pad = P × A newtons. The
friction force at each pad = 𝜇PA newtons

The braking torque = 2R𝜇 PA newton metres (two pads) (3)

Figure 9: Disc brake

Example 2
In a disc brake of the type shown in Figure 9, the hydraulic pistons are 50mm in diameter and the
effective radius of the brake disc is 150 mm. Calculate the braking torque when the hydraulic pressure
is 20 bar and the coefficient of friction is 0.4.

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Comparison of Drum and Disc Brakes
Disc brakes are better at managing and dispersing heat than drum brakes. This means that they
experience less brake fade than drum brakes and offer a more consistent performance. This is because
the disc is closer to the pads and expands even when the calipers are relaxed.
The disc brake has two main disadvantages over the drum brake:
1. Disc brakes are not as effective at low speed.
2. The disc brake needs more pressure to work effectively.

However, the disc brake has many advantages over the drum brakes:
1. The disc brake loses heat more effectively. Heat loss is dependent on the amount of air flowing
around the brake assembly and the area of heated surface exposed to that air flow. The drum brake is
generally enclosed and can lose heat only through the brake drum; much of a brake disc of exposed,
and can give up its heat very quickly off the surface. Resistance to brake fade (loss of braking effect
due to overheating) is very high.
2. The disc brake has the same stopping power in forward or reverse.
3. Disc brakes have progressive action; the greater the effort applied to the pedal the more effective
the brake will be.
4. Disc brakes are self-adjusting.
5. Disc brake pads can be easily checked for wear.
6. New brake pads are often very easy to fit.

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 Figure 10: Comparison of Drum and Disc Brakes

Mechanical Brakes
Mechanical brakes are usually used for parking brakes. It generally acts on the rear wheel drum brake
or rear disc assembly. Its operation is normally entirely mechanical i.e. manually operated and is
usually applied by a hand lever working through cables of rods.
It is independent of the hydraulic part of the braking system, through it generally uses the same brake
shoes or pads. The linkage is designed to multiply the force applied at the lever. This enables the
driver to apply the hand-brake with sufficient force to hold the vehicle on an incline.

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 Figure 11: Parking Brake (Mechanical Brake)

Power Assisted Brakes

automobiles consequently were equipped with power brake systems. These are virtually the same as
the hydraulic system except that the piston of the master cylinder is multiplied by power assists of
several types instead of by foot pressure on the pedal.

Vacuum-Assisted Power Brake (Brake Servo)

It is common practice to provide some means of increasing the force that the driver applies to the
brake pedal. The servo is the device which allows the driver to apply a large braking force by the
application of relatively light force from the foot. The amount of increased force that is produced by
the servo is dependent on the driver’s effort that is applied to the brake pedal. This ensures that
braking effort is proportional to the force applied to the brake pedal.
In the Vacuum-assisted power brake for automobiles, a constant vacuum is maintained in the brake
booster by the engine. When the brake pedal is depressed, a poppet valve opens, and air rushes into a
pressure chamber on the driver's side of the booster. The pressure exerted by this air against the
vacuum pushes a piston, thus assisting the pressure exerted by the driver on the pedal. The piston in
turn exerts pressure on the master cylinder, from which brake fluid is forced to act on the brakes.

On petrol engined vehicles, manifold vacuum is used to provide the boost that the servo generates.
On diesel engined vehicles, there is often no appreciable manifold vacuum, owing to the way in which
the engine is governed. In these cases, the engine is equipped with a vacuum pump that is known as an
exhauster.

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 Figure 12: Vacuum servo and master cylinder

Air-Hydraulic System
This system is sometimes used in light commercial vehicle, and is also known as Air over hydraulic
system. an engine-driven compressor controlled by a governor feeds air under pressure to a reservoir.
This air is then used to assist the driver in operating the hydraulic brakes. It acts in a similar way as the
vacuum servo unit, except that it uses pressurised air instead of atmospheric air pressure. This unit gives
greater assistance than vacuum servo for a given chamber size. It provides the benefits of air brakes but
at a much lower cost.

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 Figure 14: Air-Hydraulic Servo-Assisted Brake system
Air-Operated Brakes
An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles
in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake pad or brake
shoe needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having
multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-
trailers, in addition to their use in railroad trains.
Components:

Typical Air brakes systems consist of a compressor, a reservoir, a brake valve, and diaphragm units etc.

1. The function of the air compressor is to pumps air from the atmosphere to the air storage tank or air
reservoir for storage. It is driven by the engine through a belt drive.
2. The air reservoir stores the compressed air in it for later usage. This storage always has enough
amount of compressed air so that the brakes can be applied several time and also prevents the brake
failure when the air compressor shows malfunctioning.

3. The function of the unloader valve is to release the excessive air pressure to the atmosphere.
4. The brake valve functions as a control valve and directs the pressurized air to the respective diaphragm
to expand it.
5. The function of the diaphragm is to expand due to the compressed air pressure and operate the “S”
cam shoes and thereby the brakes.
6. Air compressor governor- It is the governing device used in the air brake system that controls the
compression pressure of the air that is pumped to the air storage tank through the air compressor.

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 7. Air dryer- It is the device used to remove moisture content from the air coming from the atmosphere
to prevent the lines and air storage from water condensation that can cause brake failure such as during
winters due to the freezing of that condensed water.
8. Brake pedal- It is the mechanism that is operated by the driver and is used to actuate the brakes in
order to stop or decelerate the vehicle. Brakes, when pressed, pushed the compressed air which in turn
applies brakes to the moving tire.
9. Dirt collector- It is the device that is placed inside a brake pipeline at a place where a branch is
separated and taken off to the triple valve which removes dirt from the air before sending it to the triple
valve
10. Brake cylinder or Brake chamber- It is the device that consists of a cylinder and piston over which the
compressed air pressure is applied in order to push brake pads which in turn makes frictional contact
with the disc or drum in order to stop or decelerate the vehicle.
11. Brake valve or Triple valve- The actuation and release of brake require continuous release and building
of pressure inside the brake lines and brake cylinder according to the motion of the brake pedal this is
done by the triple valve used in the air brake system.
12. Brake drums – Brake drum is the component through which the brake force due to frictional contact
between brake pads and drum lining is transferred to the wheel in order to stop or decelerate the
vehicle, Outer surface of the brake drum consisting of drum lining rotates with the wheel and the inner
part consisting of brake shoes stays in its state of rest when the brake pedal is not pressed.

Note – Usually brake drums are used in air brake system but with the suitable arrangement, disc brake can also be
used in the air brake system.

The Operation of Air Brakes System:

A hand or foot-operated valve controls these diaphragms. When the driver applies brakes, the brake-valve
controls the braking operation, directing the flow of air from a reservoir against diaphragms in the brake
chambers. It directs the air form brake chambers to the atmosphere when the driver releases the brakes. The
engine drives the air compressor that furnishes compressed air to the reservoir when it falls below the set
value.

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 Figure 15: Air pressure braking system

Figure 16: Air braking ‘S’ actuation system

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Advantages of Air Brakes
Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles such as
automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake pedal
to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in heavy commercial vehicles due to their
reliability. They have several advantages for large multi-trailer vehicles:

• The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid, as hydraulic
brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.
• Air-line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; the risk of air getting into
hydraulic fluid is eliminated, as is the need to bleed brakes when they are serviced. Air brake circuits on
trailers can be easily attached and removed.
• Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy as it is
compressed, so it can serve to control the force applied; hydraulic fluid is nearly incompressible. Air
brake systems include an air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
• Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be designed with
sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.
• The compressed air inherent in the system can be used for accessory applications that hydraulics are not
appropriate for, such as air horns and seat adjusters.

Disadvantages

Although air brakes are considered the superior braking system for heavy vehicles (gross weight
~26,000 to 33,000 pounds or more) which would overload hydraulic brakes, they also have the
following disadvantages when compared to hydraulic braking systems:

• Air brakes generally cost more.

• Air brake systems compress air, which results in moisture that requires air dryers to remove, which also
increases the price for air brake systems and can contribute to higher maintenance and repair costs,
particularly in the first five years. Defective air dryers lead to ice in the air brake system in cold
locations.
• Drivers are required to obtain additional training and licensing, known as an “endorsement,” in order to
legally drive any vehicle using an air brake system. This is because:

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 o Learning to operate air brakes smoothly has a learning curve, as they are difficult to operate
smoothly.
o Also, since air brakes must be operated differently from hydraulic systems, driving a vehicle with air
brakes requires knowledge of proper maintenance. A driver is required to inspect the air
pressurization system prior to driving and make sure all tanks are in working order.

Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)

The term ABS covers a range of electronically controlled systems that are designed to provide
optimum braking in difficult conditions. ABS systems are used on many cars, commercial vehicles
and trailers.

The purpose of anti-skid braking systems is to provide safer vehicle handling in difficult conditions. If
wheels are skidding it is not possible to steer the vehicle correctly and a tyre that is still rolling, not
sliding, on the surface will provide a better braking performance. ABS does not usually operate under
normal braking. It comes into play in poor road surface conditions, such as ice, snow, water, etc., or
during emergency stops.

Components and Operation

The heart of the system is an electronic controlled unit (ECU), which is provided with inputs of
information, and gives outputs of instructions to the controls. The inputs consist of pulse-generated
signals from the sensors at each roadwheel. They indicate whether each wheel is revolving, and how
fast it is turning. The ECU uses the sensor inputs to control the braking system through output to a
hydraulic pump assembly.

Based on the input signals from the wheel sensors, the ABS system’s ECU knows the speed of each
wheel. When the brakes are applied, the wheels and the vehicle start to slow down. The ECU monitors
the reducing pulses from the each of the roadwheel sensors. If a wheel seems about to lock up, the
ECU reduces the pressure at the that wheel until the tyre grips again. This sequence of sensing and
adjusting is continuous, and very fast.

Figure 13 shows a simplified diagram of an ABS system, which gives an insight into the way that
such systems operate. The master cylinder (1) is operated via the brake pedal. During normal braking,
manually developed hydraulic pressure operates the brakes and, should an ABS defect develop, the
system reverts to normal pedal operated braking.

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The solenoid operated shuttle valve (2) contains two valves, A and B. When the wheel sensor (5)
signals the ABS computer (ECU) (7) that driving conditions require ABS control, a procedure is
initiated which energizes the shuttle valve solenoid. The valve (A) blocks off the fluid inlet from the
master cylinder and the valve (B) opens to release brake line pressure at the wheel cylinder (6) into the
reservoir (3) and the pump (4) where it is returned to the master cylinder.

In this simplified diagram, the shuttle valve is enlarged in relation to the other components. In practice,
the movement of the shuttle valve is small and movements of the valve occur in fractions of a second.

This brief overview shows that an anti-lock braking system has sensors, an actuator, an ECU and
interconnecting circuits. In order that the whole system functions correctly, each of the separate
elements needs to be working correctly.

Figure 13: A simplified version of an ABS

Traction control systems (TCS)

Traction control is the way the wheels grip the road surface during acceleration. This is important
under braking system because ABS is also used to control the excessive speed of individual wheels
that are about to lose their grip by spinning. In addition, the power being developed by the engine is
also controlled. The system of the particular benefit during hard acceleration, or when cornering
vigorously.

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The traction control system (TCS) uses the ABS wheel sensors, the ECU and the hydraulic pump or
modulator. In addition, there is a throttle control intervention motor to reduce engine speed.
Operation
When the wheel increases its speed relative to the others, the ECU applies the brake to slow down and,
if necessary, reduce the engine power output by partially closing the throttle. As with ABS the sensing
is continuous, and the ECU will constantly strive to obtain the highest level of drive from each wheel,
whenever it is demanded by the driver.

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