UNIT IV

AIRPORT DESIGN

Runway Design: Orientation, Wind Rose Diagram, Problems on basic and Actual Length,
Geometric Design – Elements of Taxiway Design – Airport Zones – Passenger Facilities and
Services – Runway and Taxiway Markings.

CHAPTER 1

RUNWAY DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

The runway requirements are dimensional criteria, orientation, length, and width, and
pavement design strength. The direction of the runway controls the layout of the other airport facilities,
such as passenger terminals, taxiways /apron configurations, circulation roads, and parking facilities.

Very often runway orientation is an important task in the assessment of an airport site. The
wind conditions are the most critical and safety-alarming elements that challenge airport planners and
designers in the determination of runway orientation for a chosen airport site.

RUNWAY ORIENTATION

The wind conditions are the most critical and safety-alarming elements that challenge airport
planners and designers in the determination of runway orientation for a chosen airport site. An accurate
analysis of wind is essential to determine the orientation and number of runways in any airport in order
to give the desired wind coverage depending on the planed airport and its related maximum allowable
crosswind

Desirable runway orientation based on wind direction, crosswind wind component and wind
coverage. Runway is always oriented in the direction of prevailing wind. When landing and taking off
aircraft are able to maneuver on a runway, the aircraft will subject to crosswind component.

i. Preliminary information required – it is required to collect the data’s required before

going for a runway orientation.
ii. Contour map of the area of airport with suitable intervals.
iii. Force and duration records the wind vicinity and fog characteristics of the area for long
period.
 Fig: Runway Orientation

HEAD WIND

In commercial aviation these terms are quite common. It occurs to all flying objects.

Fig: Headwind

A Headwind will shorten both takeoffs and landings due to the fact that airplanes fly basing
on the speed of the air flowing over the wing, or airspeed, not ground speed like a car or train. A wind
that comes from within 90 degrees either side of the direction of the object will oppose the forward
motion. Means, if an aircraft headed due east (90 degrees) at 100 MPH, and the wind is from the east
(90 degrees) at 30 MPH, your ground speed will be reduced to 70 MPH automatically. Meantime,
while landing if the wind is blowing 30 MPH and say 45 degrees then aircraft will drift off or go off
course to right when going forward.

The orientation of runway along the head winds provides the following advantages.

a. During the landing it provides a breaking effect comes a stops requires short length of
runway.
b. During takeoff it provides lift on the wings of the aircraft.
c. Hence the landing and takeoff activities take place in a shorter length of the run way
due to headwind. The reduction in length may be about 10%.

TAILWIND

A tailwind is a wind that blows in the direction of travel of an object, while a headwind blows
against the direction of travel. A tailwind increases the object’s speed and reduces the time required
to reach its destination, while a headwind has the opposite effect.

Tailwind is just the opposite. It is a wind from behind that increases your ground speed. If you
are flying due east at 100 MPH and the wind is from the west at 30 MPH, your ground speed will be
increased to 130 MPH. A tailwind is basically a wind that blows in the same direction of travel.

Tailwinds speed up an airplane. It is not good to have a tailwind on take-off and landing. On
take-off, the tailwind speeds up the plane’s GROUND SPEED BUT it does not speed up the
AIRSPEED.

A plane needs a MINIMUM amount of AIRSEED to take off and stay in the air. Airspeed and
groundspeed are different from each other.
 So if the tailwind speeds up the groundspeed BUT the plane does not have enough AIRSPEED,
the plane can run out or runway.

CROSSWIND COMPONENTS

When winds are not parallel to or directly with/against the line of travel, the wind is said to
have a crosswind component that is, the force can be separated into two vector components:

The headwind or tailwind component in the direction of motion, the crosswind component
perpendicular to the former.

Fig: Crosswind components

 At every day it not possible to get the direction of opposite wind parallel to the center line of
the runway or through the tear. For certain period of the year at least the wind may blow making angle
with the direction of the center line of runway length.

WIND COVERAGE

During a year the percentage of time in year with the cross wind components stays within the
limit 25 km.p.h is called wind coverage of the runway. The orientation of runway should be such that
the minimum wind coverage of about 95% is oriented. For busy airports it is possible to get 98% to
100%.

FEATURES

The Windrose extension module supports all the usual library graph capabilities like frames,
shadows, colors, titles, cache. Some of the additional Windrose graphs capabilities are:

Enhanced anti-alias capability for smooth looking graphs

Manual or automatic scale
Supports customizable compass types which allow you to choose between 16, 8 and 4
compass directions to be shown.
Supports two types of basic graphs; free direction graphs and compass bound graphs.
Allows data to be specified with both compass direction and angles (in degrees)
Fully customizable fonts everywhere in the plot
Fully automatic adaptive positioning of the labels for the scale to avoid collision with
data. This can also be turned off to allow manual positioning of the labels.
Labels have extensive formatting capabilities and supports background colors, rounded
boxes and arbitrary fonts.
Supports multiple Windrose graphs on the same image
Fully customizable size and positioning of each individual windrose graph.
Size of windrose plots can be specified both as absolute pixels and as fraction of the
graph size.
Both manual and automatic color specifications
Both automatic and manual scaling
Intelligent positioning of angle labels with possibility for client specification of
alignment type.
 Windrose graphs may have arbitrary texts blocks added to the graph

DIFFERENT TYPES OF WINDROSE PLOTS

There are two basic types of Windrose plots:

Compass type.

This type of windrose plot has either 4, 8 or 16 compass direction axis. Directions in input data is
limited to one of the compass directions in the plot. The directions are specified as ordinal number of
the direction axis.

The labels on the axis is by default short forms of the compass directions, for example, “E”, “N”,
“W”, “S”. The ordinal number are counted anti-clockwise from East (3 o’clock).

Free type.

This type of windrose plot has no pre-defined direction axis. Directions in input data can be arbitrary
angles (or specified as compass directions e.g. “NW”). The 0-angle corresponds to the East direction
(3 o’clock).

Fig: Windrose Types

WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

A wind rose diagram is a tool which graphically displays wind speed and wind direction at a
particular location over a period of time.

A graphical representation of average wind data for a period of 5 to 10 years is called wind
rose. The diagram is given the name wind rose because of its irregular shape regulating a rose. It helps
in determining the suitable orientation of runway and also very much useful in estimating the capacity
of runway.
Table: Furnish the details of a typical wind data for an average of say 5 Years. It is assumed
that duration of wind for any one direction covers an angle of 22.5°.
 Fig: Angle showing wind coverage

The Wind Rose

The appropriate orientation of the runway or runways at an airport can be determined through
graphical vector analysis using a wind rose. A standard wind rose consists of a series of concentric
circles cut by radial lines using polar coordinate graph paper. The radial lines are drawn to the scale
of the wind magnitude such that the area between each pair of successive lines is centered on the wind
direction.

Wind rose diagram type-I:

 Wind rose diagram can be plotted by type-I showing direction and duration of wind.
 In the wind rose diagram plotted by type-I in which the radial lines represents the wind
direction and each concentric circle indicate the duration of wind to certain scale.
 Total percentage of wind blowing in north is taken from the collected value of wind data and
this point is marked along north direction. The wind data should usually collected for a period
of at least 5 years and preferably at 10 years so as to obtain an arrange data with sufficient
accuracy.
 The best direction of runway is shown along the direction of the longest line on the wind rose
diagram.

Procedure:

i. It is based on direction and duration of wind

 ii. Minimum 8 directions is taken but optimum is 16.
iii. Data includes total direction of time in each direction
iv. Concentric circles are drawn to scale according to the percentage of time wind is blowing
in that direction.
v. Total percentage in direction is marked on the radial line drawn in that direction
vi. These points on radial lines are joined together to form a duration
vii. Best direction of the runway is indicated along the direction of the longest line of the
windrose diagram.
Type I Showing direction and Duration of wind
Windrose Diagram type – II

Type – II: this type of wind rose is illustrated the wind data as in the previous type is used for this
case. Each circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values entered in each segment
represent the percentage of time in a year during which the wind having a particular intensity blows
from the respective direction. The procedure for determining the orientation of runway from this type
of wind rose is described below.

i. Draw three equip spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a way that the
distance between the two nearby parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind
component.
ii. This distance is measured with the same scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn the
permissible cross wind component is 25kph.
iii. Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way that the central line
passes through the centre of the diagram.
iv. With the centre of wind rose rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a position that the
sum of all the values indicating the duration of wind within the two outer parallel lines is the
maximum.
v. The runway should be thus oriented along the direction indicated by the central line. The wind
coverage can be calculated by summing up all the percentages.
 Fig: Type II Windrose showing direction, Duration and intensity of wind

CHAPTER 2

PROBLEMS ON BASIC AND ACTUAL LENGTH

Basic Runway length

The length of runway based on the following assumed conditions is known as basic runway
length.

1. No wind is blowing on the runway

2. The airport altitude is at sea level
3. Temperature at the airport is standard (15°C)
4. Runway is leveled in the longitudinal directions
5. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
 6. There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
7. Enroute temperature is standard.

Basic Runway length:

The basic runway length is determined from the performances characteristics of the aircraft
using the airport. The following are usually considered.

Fig : Basic Runway length

a. Normal landing case

b. Normal take- off case
c. Engine failure case
For jet engines aircraft all the cases as mentioned above are considered for piston engine
aircrafts, only the first and the third cases are considered
a. Normal landing case.

The landing case requires that aircraft should come to a stop with 60% of the landing distances.
The runway of full strength pavement is provided for the entire landing distance.
 Fig: Normal landing case

Now in the case of normal landing, the aircraft should come to a stop within 60% of landing
distance assuming that the pilot makes on approach at the proper speed and crossing the threshold of
the runway at the height of 15 meters. The runway of full length is to be provided for the entire landing
distance.

b. Normal take- off case

The take-off distance must be for a specific weight of aircraft 115 percent of the actual distance
the aircraft uses to reach a height of 10.5m. The distance to reach a height of 10.5m should be equal
to 115 percent of the lift – off distances.

It requires a clearway at the end of the runway in the direction of takeoff. This should be less than
150m wide. The upward slope of clearway from the end of the runway shall not exceed 1.25 percent.

Fig : Normal Take – off Case

c. Engine failure case (or) Stopping in Emergency
For the engine failure case, the takeoff before coming actual distance required to reach
a height of 10.5m with no percentage applied in this case.
The aircraft accelerating to a speed V1 before finding that the engine has failed and
then, it starts de- accelerating to a stop at the end. Therefore it requires a stop way along with
clearway.
Stopping way is defined as a rectangular paved area at the end of runway in the
direction of takeoff in which an aircraft can be stopped after an interrupted take-off to engine
failure. Its width is at least equal to runway.

Fig: Engine failure case

Balanced field concept :

In case of piston engine aircraft the designated engine failure speed is so chosen (by the
manufacturer) that the distance required to stop from that point where Vf was reached, was required to
be distance from the same point to reach specified height of 10.5m above the runway. This results in
the shortest distance of runway.

Fig: Engine failure case for jet powered aircrafts

CORRECTIONS TO BASIC LENGTH OF RUNWAY:

To obtain the actual length of the runway the following three corrections are to be applied to
the calculated basic length of runways.
 i. Correction for Elevation:

ICAO recommendation that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300
m rise in elevation of airport above the mean sea level.

This correction is required because the air density reduces as the elevation increases which in turn
reduces the lift on the wings of the aircraft. Hence the aircraft require more ground speed to rise to the
air and for achieving more speed, the longer length of shall be required.

ii. Correction for gradient :

If gradient become sleeper, more consumptions of energy take place and lengthly runway is
required to get the desired ground speed. The ICAO does not recommends any speed correction for
the gradient bur FAA recommendations that the runway length after being corrected for the elevation
and temperature, can be further increased at the rete of 20% for every 1% of the effective gradient.
The effective gradient is the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points
of runway divided by total length of runway.

iii. Corrections for temperature:

The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in its elevation
above mean sea level. After the basic length is corrected for the elevation for the elevation of airport
its is further increases=d at the ratio of 1°C rise in airport reference temperature at the elevation.

The airport reference temperature is worked out by the following expression.

Airport reference temperature = T1 + T2 –T1/3
Where
T1 = monthly mean of the average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year.
T2 = Monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same month.
The standard temperature of the maximum daily temperature for the same month
standard mean sea – level temperature of 15°C at the rate of 6.5°C per thousand meter rise in
elevation.
Problem

Calculate the actual length of the runway from the following data

Airport elevation = 200

Airport reference temperature = 30°C

Basic runway length = 1200m

Highest point along the length = RL = 99.2

Lowest point along the length = RL = 96.2

Solution:-

Correction for Elevation:-

The basic length is to be increases at the rate of 7% per 300m in elevation

Correction for elevation = 7/100 x 200/300 x 1200 = 55.99 say 56

Length of runway after correction = 1200 + 60 = 1260 m.

Correction for temperature:-

Standard atmosphere at mean - sea - level = 15°C.

Taking the temperature gradient as equal to 6.5°C per 1000m rise in elevation the standard
temperature at the airport site shall be

Temperature at RL = 200 = 15- (6.5 x 200/1000) = 13°

Applying correction at the rate 1% for every 1°C

Correction for temperature (30° - 13°) = 17°

Corrected runway length = (1/100 x 1260) x 17 = 214.2

Say 215

Therefore = 215 +1260 = 1475m

Correction for gradient

Effective gradient = R.L 99.2 – R.L 96.2/1200 = 0.0025 or 0.25%

 Appling correction for the effective gradient at the rate of 20% for each 1%

Effective gradient = (200/100 x 1475) x 0.25/1 = 73.75 say 74m.

Correction for gradient = 1475 + 74 = 1549m

Actual length of runway = 1549 m

Check

Total correction for elevation and temperature = (56 + 215) = 271m

Percentage increase = 271/1200 x 100 = 22.58%

According to ICAO, this should not be more than 35%.

CHAPTER 3

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RUNWAY

Introduction:-

The facilities to the international standard has to be provided as per ICAO. It is therefore quite
necessary lay down uniform standards so as to serve as guide for the designers in as much as airport
landing facilities are concerned.

The runway is an important component of airport and the points that are required to be
considered in the geometric design of a runway are as follows.

 Length
 Longitudinal and effective gradient
 Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
 Safety area
 Sight distance
 Transverse gradient
 Width

Length

As per ICAO classification, the runway length depends:- The actual length of runway is
obtained by making adjustments for elevation, gradient and temperature with basic runway length.
Runway Width

Fig: Dimensions are shown for sea-level runway adjustments of runway elevation as per FAA

The runway width varies from 45m to 18m depending upon the type of airport. The midway
of runways is governed by the following two main considerations.

a) Air traffic: It is observed that the distribution of the air traffic is more on the center line
of about 12 m on with side subject to maximum loading and goes an decreasing at the
edges. Therefore the central 24m width of runway pavement takes more concentrated
traffic load.
b) Outer most edge of airport:- the outer most machine of the largest aircraft likely to be
used in airport should not extend beyond the pavement. If not required width provided
it likely to use shoulders with is of loose soil likely are about 13.5m ($% feet) from the
longitudinal axis of aircraft. As such a pavement of 45m will provide safety to the
engine.
Longitudinal and effective gradient:

The longitudinal gradient of runway increase the required runway length and also affects the
aircraft performance in a number of ways. The recommendation given by ICAO for the maximum
longitudinal gradient and maximum effective gradient are shown in table.

Type of airport Maximum longitudinal gradient % Maximum effective gradient %

A,B and C 1.50 1.00
D and E 2.00 2.00

Rate of change of longitudinal Gradient

The sudden change for the longitudinal gradient is undesirable because it may restrict the
height distance and may cause premature lift off the aircraft during the takeoff speeds, the premature
lift – off may also effect the performance of the aircraft and can also develop the structural defects in
the aircraft.

The changes in gradient should be made smooth by the vertical curves and as per ICAO, the
rate of change of gradient is limited to maximum per 30m length of the vertical curve are as follows.

Table : maximum longitudinal gradient and maximum effective gradient

For A and B Types 0.10 percent

For C type 0.20 percent
For D and E type 0.40 percent
The vertical curves are not generally required if the change is not more than 0.40 percent. The
distance between two successive points of grade intersection should not be less than the absolute value
of the change in slope multiplied by 300 m for A and B types 150m for C and D and E types,

Table : FAA recommendations for the longitudinal grade changes in the runway

No Item Small Airport Long Airport

1. Maximum grade change such as a or b 2 percent 1.5 percent
Length of vertical curve L1 or L2 for each 1 percent
2. 90 m 300 m
grade change
3. Distance (D) between successive points of grade 75 (a+b)m 300( a+b)m
 Fig: Longitudinal Gradient

The fig shows the runway longitudinal grade change L1 and L2 indicate the lengths of vertical
curve at first grade change and second grade change respectively.

Safety Area

The runway area is an area which is cleared, drained and graded. It includes the structural
pavement, shoulders on either side of runway and the additional width.

Fig: The runway safety area

The shoulders are generally unpaved as they are to be in case of an emergency. They are at the
most to be prepared of stabilized soil. The provision of shoulder grants a sense of security to the pilot
and he is able to perform the operations of takeoff width of safety area should be as follows.

For instrumental runway = 300m

 For non - instrumental runway = 150m for A,B and C types of airports, 75mm for D and E
type of airports.

The length of safety are should extent 60m beyond the runway on its either end. Thus the total
length of the safety area will be equal to the length of runway + 120m. If stop way is provided, the
landing strip should extend a distance of 60m beyond the stop way.

Safety Distance:-

Normally there should be no sight distance restriction as the longitudinal gradients for the
runway are quite gentle. The collision of aircraft changes there at the points where two runways and
taxiway intersect each other, if enough space is not provided. The recommendations of ICAO with
respect to the sight distance as follows.

 For A,B and C type airports , any two points 3m above the surface of should be
mutually visible from a distance equal to the half the runway length.
 For D and E types of airports, there should be unobstructed line of sight from any point
3m above runway to all points 2m above runway with in a distance of at least one half
of the runway length.

Transverse Gradient:-

The typical instrumental cross section of runway is shown in fig: To drain the surface water
quickly the transverse gradient is provided. The accumulation of water on the runway may produce
hard situation for the aircraft using runways.

The ICAO recommends the maximum limit of transverse gradient as 1.5 percent for A,B and
C categories of airports and 2 percent for D and E types of airports. The maximum limit is however
not been specified. For satisfactory results the gradient should be less than 0.5 percent.

According to ICAO, transverse gradient of portion of shoulder included within a distance of

75m from the center line runway should be adequate with maximum limit 2.5 percent and for the
remaining portion, the transverse gradient should not exceed 5 percent.
 Fig : Instrumental runway cross –section

CHAPTER 4

ELEMENTS OF TAXIWAY DESIGN

General

Taxiways are defined as paths on the Artfield surface for the taxing of aircraft and are intended
to provide linkage between one part of the airfield and another. Aircraft movements and are relatively
slow.

Elements of Taxiway Design.

They connect runways with other areas, like terminal building, cargo, and parking areas.
Taxiways gives access for aircraft to and from the runways
Types of taxiways

A. Parallel taxiway

Provided parallel to an adjacent runway, It facilitates aircrafts to reach the apron area from runway
after landing and from apron area to runway for take-off.

B. Entrance taxiway

Located near the runway threshold. It facilitates entry of an aircraft to runway for take-off
operation.
C. Exit taxiways

Located at various points along the runway to allow landing aircraft to efficiently exit
the runway after landing.

D. Bypass taxiways

Provided to give way to aircraft, Located at areas of congestion at busy airports.

Factors that controlling the layout of taxiway

 Minimum interference between just landed just landed aircraft and ready to takeoff aircraft
 Provision of separate entrance and exit way at various locations along the runway to clear the
runway as soon as possible of provision of parallel one way taxiways.
 Avoiding intersection of taxiway and active runway
 Facilitating higher turnoff speeds for reducing runway occupancy and increasing airport
capacity
 Shortest possible distance between terminal building and end take off runway

Taxiways: Design Criteria

 Provide each runway with a parallel taxiway

 Design taxiways of optimum length
 Provide bypass capability or multiple accesses to runway ends
 Minimize crossing runways
 Provide large curves and fillet radii for easier maneuvering of aircrafts.
 Provide airport traffic control tower line-of-sight

Geometric standards for taxiway

The following elements of geometric standards for taxiways are as follows.

1. Length of taxiway
2. Longitudinal gradient
3. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
4. Sight distance
5. Transverse gradient
6. Turning radius
 7. Width of safety area
8. Width of taxiway
1. Length of taxiway

The length of a taxiway depends upon the distance between the apron and entry end of the
runway. The limiting length of the taxiway is not recommended by an organization. But to save
fuel consumption it should be as short as practicable.

2. Longitudinal gradient

Level taxiways are operationally more desirable. If gradient is steep it affects fuel
consumption. As per ICAO maximum longitudinal gradient is 3% for A and B type of airport and
1.5% for C, D and E type of airport.

3. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

Available sight distance on the pavement is affected by the rate of change of longitudinal
gradient

As per ICAO recommendation the maximum change in pavement longitudinal gradient is 4%

for A and B category of airports. For C and D and E airports categories 3.33%.

The change of grade should be the smooth enough not to cause any problem to aircraft
movement. Therefore vertical curves of 30 cm length are provided at such junctions

For airports with code letters A and B ICAO recommended length of vertical curve as 25 cm
for each 1% grade change. For grade with code letters C, D and E ICAO recommendations length of
vertical curve as 30 cm for each 1% grade. FAA recommended distance between points of grade
change as

30 (A+B)m
Where A and B are the present grade changes at the two points of grade changes
along the center line of taxiway.
4. Sight distance

As speed of aircraft on taxiway is lower than the speed on runway the smaller value of sight
distance will be sufficient on the taxiway.
 ICAO recommended that the surface of taxiway must be variable at least up to a distance of
X from any point at a height of Y above the taxiway surface.

Air code Y X

A 1.5m 150m

B 2m 200m
C, D and E 3m 300m
5. Transverse gradient

Adopted same as recommended for runway ICAO recommended maximum pavement

transverse gradient of 2% for A and B and 1.55% for apron with code C D and E type of airport

FAA specify:
Transverse gradient of least 3% for turn of shoulders
A 4 cm drop the paved surface to the graded shoulder surface
Minimum gradient is taken as 0.5% for rigid pavement case and 1% for other

ICAO Recommendation

Strip Aero drum code

Maximum Transverse

Graded portion A B C D E

Upward 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5

Downward 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Ungraded portion

Upward 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

6. Turning radius

Change in aircraft path is done by providing a horizontal curve

The design should be such that the aircraft can negative the curves without significantly
reducing the speed
 Recommended radii corresponding the taxing speeds of small, Subsonic and supersonic
airplanes is 60 m, 135m and 240 m respectively.

Relationship between exit speed and radius of curve

Radius = V2/125 f (m)

Where V is the km.ph and f is coefficient of friction and equal to 0.13

Fig: Taxiway Widening

According to Horonjeffs equation for supersonic aircraft the radius of curve should be such that a
minimum distance of 6m is maintained between the nearby main gear and the edge of pavement

R= 0.388 W2/0.5T-S
Where
W = wheel base of aircraft in meters
R = radius of center line taxiway in meters
T = width of taxiway pavement in meters
 S= Distance between point midway of the main gear and the edge of
taxiway pavement in meters
S = 6+ ( Wheel Tread /2)
7. Width of safety area

Safety area is made up of partially paved shoulders on either side plus the area which is graded
and drained

In case of jet aircraft a paved surface of light strength material on either side of taxiway edge
with minimum width of 7.5m on both sides of pavement edge is provided

The pavement thickness should be

Thick enough to support the airport petrol vehicles etc.
Surface should be treated with bitumen
It should not disintegrate due to hot blast of jet aircraft
The surface should be smooth and impervious.
As per ICAO Aero drum code
A B C D E

Pavement and shoulder 25m 38m 44m

Edge safety margin 1.5m 2.25m 3m 4.5m 4.5m

Graded portion of strip 22m 25m 25m 38m 44m

4.5m if intended to be used by an airplane with a wheel base equal to or greater than 18m

AS per FAA Aero plane design group

I II III IV V VI
Width of safety area 15m 24m 36m 52m 59m 79m
Edge safety margin 1.5m 2.5m 3m 4.5m 4.5m 6m
Shoulder width 3m 3m 6m 7.5m 10.5m 12m
 8. Width of taxiway
Width of taxiway is lesser than runway as aircraft is not airborne and speeds are small.
There is not much variability in the maneuver ability of aircraft and nose of aircraft follows
the centerline.
Varies between 22.5m and 7.5m
Width of taxiway recommended by ICAO

Airport Code Taxiway width

A 7.5m
B 10.5m
C 16m (18m if the taxiways is used by aircraft with a wheel base equal to
greater than 18 m)
D 18m(23m if used by aircraft with an outer main gear wheel span equal
to or greater than 9m)
E 23m

EXIST TAXIWAYS:

The aim of providing exit taxiways is to minimize the runway occupancy by the landing
aircraft. The location of exist taxiways depends on the following data’s.

Fig: Exit Taxiway

 Fig: Conventional, right-angle exit taxiway.

Fig: Acute-angled exit taxiway

1. Air Traffic Control :

The rapidly and the manner in which air traffic control can process arrival is an extremely
important factor in establishing the location of the exist taxiway.

2. Exist Speed:

After landing by aircraft it require certain length of runway to bring down the landing speed to
turn off speed. The maximum speed with while an aircraft can turn and enter the taxiway is governed
by the type of aircraft. This value of exit speed will decide the location of exist taxiway.

3. Location of runways:

The location of the exit taxiways is also influenced by the location of the runways relative to the
terminal area.
4. Number of exist:

The number of taxiways provided shall decide its location for example if two taxiways are to be
provided the both will be provided at each runway end. If more numbers are to provided it will be
distributed along the runway length.

5. Pilot Visibility

The radius for flying transport are strict but certain amount of variability among pilots is bound to
occur especially in respect to the breaking from runway threshold to touch down.

6. Topographical Feature:

These include high altitude, deep valley obstructions and turning zones etc. The have also certain
impact on the location of taxiway.

7. Types of craft

Landing sped will vary with different aircrafts and accordingly the distance required to reduce the
speed to the exit speed level will also vary. The types of aircraft likely to use the runway should
therefore be studied.

8. Weather conditions:

The time required by the aircraft to slow down to the exit speed influenced to factors like wind,
temperature etc.

OPTIMUM LOCATION OF EXIT TAXIWAYS

The landing aircrafts should clear the runway and enter the out taxiways as early as possible.
The acceptance rate of runway with a system of exit taxiways should be as neatly equal to the arrival
rate of aircraft as possible. Relationship between acceptance rate and the arrival rate of aircrafts is
shown in fig: up to certain arrival of runway is capable of accepting all the arriving aircrafts. As the
arrival rate further increases the airport cannot accepts.
 Fig: optimum location of Exit taxiways

The ideal relationship of equal arrival and acceptance occurs at the balance point and it
indicates the situation, when the runway is located to its full capacity. Such a situation is referred as
the runway saturation.

After the balance point the airport is unable to accept all the aircrafts and few of them have to
be waved off. The optimum location for a given set of condition yielding the higher possible rate of
acceptance.

As a result of intensity study carried out on the modules the FAA has recommended the
following optimum distance of the exit taxiways from runway threshold for different types of aircrafts.

i. Twin engine propeller transport and large twin engine general aviation aircraft
… 760 m.
ii. Four engine propeller driven temperature turbo prop and twin engine turbo jet
… 1200 m
iii. Large turbo jet transport …. 1800m

The above distance are standard day at mean sea level. Following correction recommended for altitude
and temperature.

S1 = ((S2 + m) (70/p) (4.92 +1.81/5.19)) = M

Where

S2 = Distance from the runway end to the exit taxiway on a standard day

S1 = Distance from the runway end to the exits taxiway corrected for altitude and
temperature in m.
 M= 150 for turbo jet and 195 for all other aircraft

T= Average temperature of the hottest month at the site in °C

P = Standard air pressure at the site in cm of mercury.

The above corrections assumes zero wind in the aircraft would not miss the exit taxiway duet
the wind. If the wind velocity is too high, its effect should also be considered. As arrange guide it is
assumed that at head wind of above 16 km.ph may cause approximately 13.5 percent reduction in
distance to the ext. speed.

AIRPORT ZONES

i. Clear Zone
The Clear zone is one which is used to indicate the innermost portion of the approach zone
and it is to be provided at the end of the runway.
The runway clear zones are the most critical portion from the view point of obstruction. It
should be a level area except for fences ditches and other minor obstructions, all the major
obstructions to be removed from clear zone. The fig shows the layout of runway clear zone and
table gives the dimensions. The length of clear zone is determined by the distance required to reach
a height of 30m for the appropriate approach surface.

Fig : Runway clear Zone

 Table : Dimensions of Runway Clear Zone
No Type of runway W1 W2 (m) L (m)
1. Instrumental Runway (m) 525 750
2 Non – Instrumental runway 300 270 600
(i) Large Airport 150 135 300
(ii) Small Airport 75

ii. Turning Zone

In case of engine failure or any other reasons the pilot select to land the aircraft have to turn and
come in line with runway before landing. The area of airport other than the approach area which
is used for turning operations of aircraft is called turning zone
Thus the aircraft operates at a considerably low height in the turning zone and it therefore
becomes absolutely necessary in ascertain the fact that area of turning zone in free from any
obstructions shows the turning zone profile of runways equipped with the instrumental landing
facilities.
The following points to be noted:
a) Any object located within a distance of 415 km from APP considered as an obstructions,
if its height exceeds 51m above the ground or the established airport elevation whichever
is more.
b) Any object which is located beyond a distance of 4.5m from the ARP is considered as an
obstruction if its height exceeds 51m plus 30m for each additional 1.5 km distance from
the ARP or if exceeds 150 m with in a distance from the ARP or if exceeds 150m within a
distance from the ARP that covers.

CHAPTER 5

PASSENGERS FACILITIES AND SERVICES

i. All passenger and services are provided and accommodated in airport building
a. Economic / Executive lounges to comfortably sit
b. Electronic lockers
c. Parent rooms
d. Prayer rooms
 e. Swimming facilities
f. Television
g. Departure hall
h. Inter- terminal transport
i. Children play ground
j. Smoking rooms
k. Arrival hall
ii. Services required at airport
i. Money Exchange
ii. Medical services
iii. Post and telecommunication
iv. Left baggage counter
v. Pharmacy
vi. Hair dressing saloons
vii. Lost and found ( toll free calling center)
viii. Shopping malls
ix. Supermarkets
x. Duty free zone
xi. Flight information
xii. Bus service stand
xiii. Airport info line booth
xiv. Car rental counters
xv. Facilities for differently abled persons – amps elevators, specially designed
toilets and telephones.
xvi. Nursery for feeding and changing of dresses for babies
 Fig: Offsite passenger site facilities

CHAPTER 6
RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY MARKINGS.
General
Extra to day time in night time also the landings and takeoff of the aircraft in good and bad
weather has to be carried out. For a pilot who is flying at a considerable height, the area of airfield
looks like a tiny small spot and in order to guide him properly, the runways, taxiways and other allied
components of the airport should be properly marked so that they can be easily notified by the pilot.
In order to identify and recognize various airport element by a pilot certain marking are made
on the airport area in a simple manner. By this arrangement the pilot should be distinctly identify the
landing area and the wind-Direction
Airport marking
To help the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways and taxiways the pavements are
marked with lines and numbers.
These airport markings are benefits to the pilots for recognizing the various airport elements
during daylight and dusk.
At night lights are used to guide the pilots in loading and measuring in the airport.

Types of Airport Marking

1. Runway Marking

2. Taxiway Marking

3. Apron Marking
 4. Wind direction indicator

5. Landing direction indicator

1. Runway Marking

Runway Marking Consist of

1. Runway centerline Marking

2. Runway threshold Marking

3. Runway End-Strip Marking

4. Runway Numbering

5. Parallel runway Marking

6. Runway Shoulder Marking

1. Runway centerline Marking

The runway center-line is represented by a broken Strip running along the full length of the
runway. The width of the marking is 90cm.

Fig: Runway centerline Marking

2. Runway threshold Marking

Runway threshold marking is indicated by a series of parallel lines commencing from a

distance of 6m from the runway-end. The markings are in the form of strips 3.60m wide and with of
the Spacing of 0.90m. The marking are placed symmetrically on either side of the runway center-line.

Fig: Runway threshold Marking

3. Runway End-Strip Marking
Edges of the runway are normally marked. In case of with width Exceeding 45m, The
Strips is made in the form of along continuous lines of 90cm width of marked near the edges.

Fig: Runway End-Strip Marking

4. Runway Numbering

End of Each runway is marked with a numbering indicating the magnetic Azimuth. That is
the East-end of an East-West runway would be marked 27 and the west end 7.

Fig: Runway Numbering

5. Parallel Runway Marking

If there are two or more number of parallel runways they are marked as follows at the
threshold

(a) Two-Parallel Runways (b) Three parallel Runways (c) Four Parallel Runways

Considering the Azimuth of three intersecting, the numbering can be done as Shown as follows.

Fig: Parallel Runway Marking

6. Runway Shoulder Marking

The Shoulder on the edges of a runway and taxiway are paved. Although they appear
Structurally Strong they are not capable of withstanding the Aircraft loads. Runway Shoulder marking
is used as a supplement to runway side Strips.

Shoulder marking are generally needed to guide the pilot to identify the runway from the
Shoulder The color of runway Shoulder marking is yellow and are located between the runway side
Strips and the pavement edges.

These marking consist of Strips 1m width and Spaces 30m Apart. The Strips are marked
Slander at an angle of 45 degree to the center and Start at the Runway mid-Point.

Fig: Runway Shoulder Marking

TAXIWAY MARKINGS

The required features of taxiway marking system are as below

(i) A Single continues 15cm yellow strips is used to mark the centre line of taxiway.
(ii) A intersections of the taxiways with the runway ends, the centre line of the taxiway is
terminated at the edge of runways
(iii) At all other instructions of the taxiways with the runways, the centre line of taxiway is
extended to the centre line of the runway.
(iv) At the taxiway interaction, the centre line is marking of the runway continue through
the intersection area.
 (v) In case where the edge of the full strength pavement of a taxiway is not readily apparent
the edge is marked with the continues 15cm wide yellow strips 15cm apart.
(vi) Holding line marking is painted at all the intersections of the paved taxiways with the
runways.

Fig: Taxiway markings

Wind direction indicator and landing indicator

Wind –direction indicator is in the form of a truncated cone made of fabric. It should be of
3.6 m length and 0.9 m diameter at the larger end. It should be constructed in such a way that it gives
a clear indicating of the wind Speed. The color combination adopted should be such that the indicator
is clearly visible and understanding for the pilot from a height of 300m.

Fig: Wind rose landing indicator

An Airport must be Equipped with at least one wind direction indicator. The location of the
wind direction indicator should be at such a position so as to be Visible from the aircraft in flight of
on movement area

Provision should be made to illuminate at least one wind direction indicator

Wind direction indicator is usually placed at the center of the segmented circle marker. This
arrangement helps the pilot in locating the airport and the wind direction indicator.

Fig: Wind rose direction landing indicator

LANDING DIRACTION INDICATOR

It is in the form Tee or Tetrahedron and is placed at the center of the segmented Circle.

Fig: Landing Indicator

This enables the pilot to identify the direction of the Active runway of the Airport. This dimension of
a typical Landing direction indicator is shown in the above figure.
Fig: landing Details