Developing An Electromagnet

Developing an electromagnet and understanding the hysteresis
curve
Introduction
All substances show some kind of magnetic behaviour. After all, they are made up of
charged particles: electrons and protons. It is the way in which electron clouds arrange
themselves in atoms and how groups of these atoms behave that determines the
magnetic properties of the material. The atom (or group of atoms) in effect becomes a
magnetic dipole or a mini bar magnet that can align according to the magnetic field
applied. The net effect of all these dipoles determines the magnetic properties of the
magnetic materials.The circulating electron produces its own orbital magnetic
moment, and there is also a spin magnetic moment because the electron itself spins,
like the earth, on its own axis.
In most materials these magnetic moments, measured in Bohr magnetons (µB), cancel
each other out with each electronic magnet negating the field produced by another. In
certain magnetic materials the magnetic moments of a large proportion of the
electrons align, producing a unified magnetic field. The field produced in the material
(or by an electromagnet) has a direction of flow, and any magnet will experience a
force trying to align it with an externally applied field, just like a compass needle.
These forces are used to drive electric motors, produce sounds in a speaker system,
control the voice coil in a CD player, and so on. The interactions between magnetism
and electricity are therefore an essential aspect of many devices we use every day.
About experiment:
A ferromagnetic rod is magnetized by placing it in the magnetic field of a solenoid. The
magnetized rod causes a deflection (θ) in a magnetometer. The deflection is recorded as the
current in the solenoid (I) is varied over a range of positive and negative values.
Classification of Magnetic Materials
All materials can be classified in terms of their magnetic behaviour falling into one of five
categories depending on their bulk magnetic susceptibility. The two most common types of
magnetism are diamagnetism and paramagnetism, which account for the magnetic properties
of most of the periodic table of elements at room temperature.
ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
• The spin alignment is in antiparallel manner.

• Susceptibility is small and positive and it depends on temperature.
• Initially susceptibility increases with increase in temperature and beyond Neel temperature
the susceptibility decreases with temperature.
FERRI MAGNETIC MATERIALS
• The spin alignment is antiparallel but have different magnitude.

• So they possess net magnetic moment which produce a large magnetization even for a small
applied external field.
• It is also called ferrites.
• Susceptibility is very large and positive. Examples: ferrous ferrite, nickel ferrite
Types of Magnetic materials
(i) Soft magnetic materials
Properties:
• These magnetic materials can be easily magnetized and demagnetized, but they cannot be
permanently magnetized
• Less energy is required to magnetize and demagnetize a soft magnetic material.
• These are used to make electromagnets.
• Eg: Iron silicon alloys, Ferrous nickel alloy, Iron-cobalt alloys, Ferrite and
garnets • Low Hysteresis loss and low coercivity. These materials have large values of
permeability and susceptibility
Applications:
• Soft magnetic materials have relatively small and narrow hysteresis loop and hence small
energy loss per cycle of magnetization. They are widely used for the construction of cores of
electrical rotating machines, transformers, and for making electro-magnets, reactors, relays.
• Soft magnetic materials are mostly used where changing magnetic flux is associated, such as
magnetic core of electric motors, alternators, DC generators, electrical transformers,
protective relays, inductors.
(ii) Hard magnetic materials
Properties:
• These magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized, but they can be
permanently magnetized.
• The reason is that the domain walls are motionless owing to crystal defects and
imperfections.
• Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis loop area
• These are used to make permanent magnets.
• These materials have high Coercivity and retentivity. Hence, cannot be easily
magnetized and demagnetized. High magnetizing force is required to attain magnetic
saturation.
• Eg: Alnico alloy, Copper nickel iron alloy, Copper nickel cobalt alloy.
Applications:
Various other applications are; • Automotive: motor drives for fans, wipers, injection pumps,
starter motors, Control for seats, windows etc.
• Telecommunication: Microphones, Loud Speakers, Telephone Ringers etc. Data processing:
Printers, Stepping Motors, Disc Drives and Actuators.
HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis- The hysteresis effect occurs when the magnetization of ferromagnetic materials
lags behind that of the magnetic field. Whenever a ferromagnetic substance is inserted in a
current-carrying coil, the substance becomes magnetized as a result of the magnetic field
present. Hysteresis is the process of demagnetizing a substance by reversing the direction of
the current.
Hysteresis loop- The loop is formed by continuously monitoring the magnetic flux released
by the ferromagnetic substance as the external magnetizing field is altered.
The graph is indicating a hysteresis loop.
When the magnetic field strength (H) is increased from zero to one, the magnetic flux density
(B) increases.The value of magnetism increases when the magnetic field is increased until it
reaches point A, also known as the saturation point, where B remains constant.As the
magnetic field value diminishes, the value of magnetism lowers as well. However, the
substance or material retains some magnetic retentivity, sometimes known as residual
magnetism, when B and H are both zero. When the magnetic field is shifted to the negative
side, magnetism decreases as well. The material is totally demagnetized at point C. Coercive
force is the amount of force required to remove a material's retentivity (C). The cycle is
repeated in the opposite direction, with the saturation point D, retentivity point E, and
coercive force F.The forward and opposite direction processes complete the cycle, which is
referred to as the hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis loss- Hysteresis can cause energy loss in electric machines' ferromagnetic cores.
This is due to the fact that the alternating current's flow direction, and hence the direction of
the magnetic field produced by it, is continually changing. This causes the molecules in the
core to migrate in order to correct their alignment. These molecules collide with one other
during this movement, causing friction and heat. Hysteresis loss is the energy loss induced by
the friction of molecules in the core.
To develop the working experiment:
References
1. Jiles, D.C: Thoelke, J.B; Devine, M.K: “Numerical Determination of Hysteresis Parameters
for the Modeling of Magnetic Properties Using theTheory of Ferromagnetic
Hysteresis”, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, pp.27-28, Vol. 28, No. 1, January
1992.
2.Kasap S O., Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, 3rd Ed, Mcgraw Hill ,2006
(ISBN 0072957913).
3.Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis)

Developing An Electromagnet

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Developing an electromagnet and understanding the hysteresis

Classification of Magnetic Materials

• The spin alignment is in antiparallel manner.

• The spin alignment is antiparallel but have different magnitude.

Types of Magnetic materials

(i) Soft magnetic materials

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