Lecture one

1. Magnetism: is one aspect of the combined electromagnetic force, which is one of

the four fundamental forces of nature. It refers to physical phenomena arising from the
force caused by magnets and flowing current called magnetic force i.e., objects that
produce fields that attract or repel other objects.

2. Magnetic forces: are generated by moving electrically charged particles.

3. Permanent magnet: an object made from a material that is magnetized and

creates its own persistent magnetic field.

4. Non-permanent magnet: An electromagnet is made from a coil/solenoid of wire

which acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it

5. The magnetic moment: is the measure of the strength of the magnet and is the
ability to produce (and be affected by) a magnetic field.

6. Magnetic Moment Vector: |m| = IA, Units: [Am2] or equivalently [Joule/Tesla].

Measure of the strength of the magnet.

7. Magnetic field strength/Magnetizing force (H): Units: [A/m] Measure of the

strength of the externally applied field.
8. Magnetization (M): magnetic moment (m) per unit volume (V). Units: [A/m]
m=M/V

• M measures the materials response to the applied field H (of course we know from our
experience with permanent magnets that M can exist even if H is removed).M is the
magnetization induced by the applied external field H.

9. Magnetic anisotropy: Anisotropy means that various directions in the crystals are
non-equivalent with respect magnetization (M) and this implies that M may not be in the
same direction of the applied field.
10-Diamagnetic Materials
-It is a weak form of magnetism
-Diamagnetism is because of orbital magnetic moment.
-No permanent dipoles are present so net magnetic moment is zero.
- Persists only when external field is applied.
-The number of orientations of electronic orbits is such that the vector sum of the
magnetic moments is zero.
-Dipoles are induced by change in orbital motion of electrons due to applied magnetic
field. External field will cause a rotation action on the individual electronic orbits.
-The external magnetic field produces induced magnetic moment which is due to orbital
magnetic moment. Induced magnetic moment is always in opposite direction of the
applied magnetic field. So magnetic induction in the specimen decreases.
Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.

• Repels magnetic lines of force.

• Diamagnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature and applied magnetic field
strength
Relative permeability is less than one.
• It is present in all materials, but since it is so weak it can be observed only when other
types of magnetism are totally absent.
• Examples: Bi, Zn, gold, H2O, alkali earth elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr), superconducting
elements in superconducting state.
-masked by the presence of stronger effects like ferromagnetism
-A superconductor (under some conditions) is a perfect diamagnet
11-Paramagnetic Materials
-Possess permanent dipoles.
- If the orbital's are not completely filled or spins not balanced, an overall small
magnetic moment may exist.
- paramagnetism is because of orbital and spin magnetic moments of the electron.
- In the absence of external magnetic field all dipoles are randomly oriented so net
magnetic moment is zero.
• Spin alignment is random.
• The magnetic dipoles do not interact in presence of magnetic field the • material gets
feebly magnetized i.e.; the material allows few magnetic lines of force to pass through it
Relative permeability is more than one

-The orientation of magnetic dipoles depends on temperature and applied field.

Susceptibility is independent of applied mag. field & depends on temperature
(With increase in temperature susceptibility decreases).

Susceptibility is small and positive.

• These materials are used in lasers.

• Paramagnetic property of oxygen is used in NMR technique for medical diagnose.
Examples: alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb), transition metals, Al, Pt, Mn, Cr etc.

12 m Susceptibility: is a measure of a material’s magnetic response relative to a

vacuum
Susceptibility is independent of applied mag. field & depends on temperature range from
10-5 to 10-2
13-Lenz's law: states that change in magnetic field will induce a current in a loop of
electrical conductor, which will tend to oppose the applied magnetic field.
Lecture TWO

Magnetic field strength H - a physical quantity used as one of the basic

measures of the intensity of magnetic field. The unit of magnetic field strength
is ampere per meter or A/m.
Magnetic flux density B - a physical quantity used as one of the basic
measures of the intensity of magnetic field. The unit of magnetic flux density is
tesla or T.
➢ Magnetic field strength H can be thought of as excitation and the magnetic
flux density B as the response of the medium.
Lecture THREE

The diamagnetism:
is a consequence of Lenz’s law stating that if the magnetic flux enclosed by
a current loop is changed by the application of a magnetic field, a current is
induced in such a
direction that the corresponding magnetic field opposes the applied field.
Lecture 4
1)

2)

3)
4)
Lecture FIVE
Curie law: the mass susceptibility𝜒𝑚 was independent of
temperature for diamagnetic materials, • but that it varied inversely
with the absolute temperature for paramagnetic materials.
Lecture SIX
1. The domain in ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the thermo
dynamical principle (i.e,) in equilibrium the total energy of the system is
minimum.
Total Energy of the domains comprises the sum of: (i) Exchange Energy (or)
Magnetic Field Energy
(ii) Anisotropic Energy => Easy and Hard direction
(iii)Domain Wall Energy => Thick wall and Thin Wall
(iv) Magneto-strictive Energy
2. Exchange Energy (magnetic field energy):
• The interaction energy that makes the adjacent dipoles to align
themselves.
• It establishes a single domain in the ferromagnetic material.
• It is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single
domain and this work done is stored as potential energy.
3. Crystalline Anisotropy Energy: The excess of energy required to
magnetize the specimen along hard direction over that required to
magnetize the specimen along easy direction.
4. Anisotropy Energy: It is the required energy to deflect the magnetic
moment in a single crystal from the easy to the hard direction of
magnetization. The magnetic moment in a single crystal is basically
aligned toward the easy direction.
5. Magnetic anisotropy: the dependency of magnetic properties on a preferred
crystallographic direction.
6. Bloch wall: a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains,
magnetized in different directions. Based on the spin alignments Thick
Wall & Thin Wall
7. Thick Wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the
direction of the spins changes gradually. The misalignment of spins is
associated with exchange energy.
8. Thin Wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the
anisotropic energy becomes very less.
Anisotropy energy is directly proportional to the thickness of the wall.
9. Bloch walls: The boundaries between magnetic domains. The entire
change in spin direction between domains does not occur in one sudden
jump across a single atomic plane rather takes place in a gradual way
extending over many atomic planes. The magnetic moments in adjoining
atoms change direction continuously across the boundary between
domains.
10. Magnetostriction: When the domains are magnetized in different
directions, they will either expand or shrink this leads to deformation of the
material, when magnetized. The deformation is different along different
crystal directions & the change in dimension depends on nature of the
material.
11. Magnetostriction Energy: Energy produced in this effect.
12. Ferromagnetic materials: Materials that retain a magnetization in zero
field. Quantum mechanical exchange interactions favour parallel alignment
of moments. Examples: iron, cobalt.
13. Domain wall moment or Domain wall growth: Volume of favorably
oriented domains will increase. Occurs at low magnetic field. It is a
reversible process.
14. Rotation of Domains: Rotation of less favorably oriented domains takes
place. Occurs at large magnetic field. It is an irreversible process.
15. Hysteresis Curve: lagging or retarding of an effect behind the cause of
the effect. It is also called B H curve. Where, effect is B & cause of the effect
is H.
16. Hysteresis in magnetic materials: lagging of magnetic induction (B) or
magnetization (M) behind the magnetizing field (H).
17. Domain growth:
• Each domain is magnetized in a different direction.
• Applying a field changes domain structure. Domains with magnetization
in direction of field grow.
• Other domains shrink.
18. Hysteresis loop: The loop traced out by magnetization in a ferromagnetic
or ferrimagnetic material as the magnetic field is cycled. OR Removing the
field does not necessarily return domain structure to original state. Hence
results in magnetic hysteresis.
19. Characteristics of soft magnetic materials: High initial permeability, Low
coercivity, reaches to saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied
magnetic field, it can be easily magnetized and demagnetized and Low
Hysteresis loss.
20. Importance of Soft Magnetic Materials:
• Saturation magnetization can be changed by altering composition of the
materials. Ex: - substitution of Ni2+ in place of Fe2+ changes saturation
magnetization of ferrous-Ferrite.
• Susceptibility and coercivity which also influence the shape of the
Hysteresis curve are sensitive to the structural variables rather than
composition.
• Low value of coercivity corresponds to the easy movement of domain
walls as magnetic field changes magnitude and/ or direction.
21. Characteristics of Hard magnetic materials: Low initial permeability,
High coercivity and High remanence, High saturation flux density, Reaches
to saturation magnetization with a high applied magnetic field, It cannot be
easily magnetized and demagnetized, High Hysteresis loss, Used as
permanent magnets.
22. Importance of Hard magnetic materials: Coercivity and energy product
expressed as (BH) max with units in kJ/m3. This corresponds to the area of
largest B-H rectangle that can be constructed within the second quadrant of
the Hysteresis curve. Larger the value of energy product harder is the
material in terms of its magnetic characteristics.
23. Magnetic Storage Devices: Information is stored by magnetizing material
due to high retentivity.
24. Recording Head: Soft Magnetic Materials, Head can apply magnetic field
H & align domains (i.e., magnetize the medium) and detect a change in the
magnetization of the medium. Ex: Fe-Ni, Fe-Al-Si alloy, Mn-Zn ferrite, Ni-
Zn ferrite.
25. Magnetic storage media: Those are particulate and thin film. Particulate
media consist of very small needle like or acicular particles. Ex: γ-Fe2O3
ferrite, Co- γ- Fe2O3 ferrite and CrO2.
26. Thin film: a poly crystalline material. It provides higher storage
capacities at lower costs. Ex: Co-Pt-Cr alloy, Co-Cr-Ta alloy (thickness 10
to 50 nm).Domains are ~ 10-30nm (Hard drive). Each grain within the thin
film is a single magnetic domain. The grain shape and size must be uniform.
Lecture SEVEN
Exchange Energy or Magnetic Field Energy:
The interaction energy that makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves.
The energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this
work done is stored as potential energy.
Crystalline anisotropy energy:
The excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard direction over that
required to magnetize the specimen along easy direction.
Magnetic anisotropy:
The dependency of magnetic properties on a preferred crystallographic direction.
Bloch wall:
A transition layer which separates the adjacent domains, magnetized in different
directions.
The boundaries between magnetic domains.
Thick Wall:
When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spins changes
gradually. The misalignment of spins is associated with exchange energy.
Thin Wall:
When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy becomes
very less.
Magnetostriction Effect:
When the domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or
shrink this leads to deformation of the material.
Magnetostriction Energy:

Energy produced in this Magnetostriction Effect.

Ferromagnetic materials:
Materials that retain a magnetization in zero field such as iron, cobalt.
Hysteresis Curve:
Means lagging or retarding of an effect behind the cause of the effect, in magnetism
means lagging of magnetic induction (B) or magnetization (M) behind the magnetizing
field (H).
Hysteresis loop:
The loop traced out by magnetization in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material as the
magnetic field is cycled.
Coercive force:
The field needed to bring the magnetization back to zero.
Remenance:
A measure of the remaining magnetization when the driving field is dropped to zero.
Coercivity:
A measure of the reverse field needed to drive the magnetization to zero after being
saturated.
Energy product expressed as (BH)max
The area of largest B-H rectangle that can beconstructed within the second quadrant of
the Hysteresis curve.
Represents the amount of energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet.

Soft Magnets :
Materials characterised by High initial permeability.Low coercivity.Reaches to
saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied magnetic field.It can be easily
magnetized and demagnetized and Low Hysteresis loss.
Hard Magnets:
Materials charachterised by low initial permeability,High coercivity, High
remanence,High saturation flux density and High Hysteresis loss
Reaches to saturation magnetization with a high applied magnetic field.It can not be
easily magnetized and Demagnetized.
Lecture EIGHT
What is the process of magnetization?
The process of magnetization is then one of converting
the specimen from a multi-domain state into one in which
it is a single domain magnetized in the same direction as
the applied field.

𝜃's value in curie Weiss law?

• 𝜃 Is a measure of the strength of the interaction because it is
proportional to
the molecular field constant 𝜸.
Lecture NINE

Ferrimagnets
1-the magnetic moments of the A and B sublattices are not equal and result in a net
magnetic moment.
2- Ferrimagnetism is similar to ferromagnetism. It exhibits all the hallmarks of
ferromagnetic behavior- spontaneous magnetization, Curie temperatures, hysteresis,
and remanence. However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very different magnetic
ordering.
Two groups of ferrites depending on their structure :
1. Cubic (Spinel & Garnets):

1-General formula: MOFe2O3 where M is a divalent metal ion (Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, Mg, ...)
2-CoOFe2O3 is magnetically hard, but all the other cubic ferrites are magnetically soft.
3-magnetite: Fe3O4 = FeOFe2O3 : oldest ferrite (lodestone, iron ferrite)
2. Hexagonal:

1- Barium ferrite (BaO6Fe2O3 ) is magnetically hard Cubic ferrites (Spinel structure) :

MO·Fe2O3 : M = Mn, Ni, Fe, Co, Mg.
In the unit cell, total 56 ions (8 M2+ ions, 16 Fe3+ ions, 32 O2 - ions)
64 tetrahedral A site / 8 = 8 32 octahedral B site / 2 = 16
Normal Spinel: 8 M2+ in A, 16 Fe3+ in B

Inverse Spinel: 8 Fe3+ in A, 8 M2+ + 8 Fe3+ in B

Intermediate structure: Nor perfectly normal or inverse structure

MnO · Fe2O3 (80% on A, 20% on B)

MgO · Fe2O3 (10% on A, 90% on B)
Most commercial ferrites: a mixed ferrite like (Ni, Zn)O · Fe2O3

Hexagonal Ferrites
MO·6Fe2O3 (= BaFe12O19) where M = Ba, Sr
Calculated saturation magnetization = 20μB /molecule (experimental)

Other oxides
BaO·2MO·8Fe2O3 W
2(BaO·2MO·3Fe2O3) Y 3BaO·2MO·12Fe2O3) Z where,M is a divalent ion
Other Ferrites:
γ-Fe2O3: tetragonal
(Calculated net moment/molecule = 2.5μB ↔ 2.39μB experimental)
Garnets: 3M2O3 ・5Fe2O3 (M = Y or RE)
Alloys:
Mn2 Sb, Mn3Ga, Mn3Ge2 , Mn3 In, FeGe2 , FeSe, Cr3As2 , CrPt3 , RECo5 (RE: Gd, Tb,
Dy, Ho, Eu, or Tm)
WHY Do We choose “Ferrimagnetic Materials “?
For their applications
• 1- Microwave circulators.
• 2- Magnetic computer memories.
• 3- Soft magnets as transformers cores.
• 4- Radio wave antennas.
• 5- Production of permanent magnets.
• 6- Production of magnetic fluids.
• 7- Magnetic amplifiers.

Ferrimagnetism
A ferrimagnetic material is one that has populations of atoms with opposing magnetic
moments, as in antiferromagnetic; in ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments
are unequal, and a spontaneous magnetization remains.
-If we have two positions in the crystal structure A and B that the atoms/ions can
occupy, the total molecular magnetic moment is
μT = μB - μA > 0
- Ferrimagnetic materials form domains and act like ferromagnetic materials; forming
hysteresis loops. Their saturation magnetization decreases with increasing
temperature and after a certain temperature, they behave like paramagnetic materials.
Types of Ferrimagnetic Materials
Depending upon the crystal structure. ferrites are of the following types:
1-Garnets:
The chemical formula for a ferrimagnetic garnet is M3Fe5O12
where M is a trivalent ion earth element (Gadolinium Gd, yttrium Y, Erbium Er)
Cubic crystal structure: Most complex, hardest to prepare - High resistivity, optically
active and transparent - Used in polarization.
2-Spinel:
the chemical formula MO. Fe2O3
where M stands for divalent metal ions usually transition elements (Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni, ...).
Note: The Combination of these ions is also possible. In this case we speak of a mixed
ferrite.
Cubic crystal structure FCC.
• Easiest to prepare.
• High resistivity, high saturation magnetization, high permeability, has both
semiconductor and dielectric properties.
• All its properties can be easily controlled.

• Used in cores, memories, ICs.

3-Hexagonal:
The simplest of these compounds has the general formula MO.6Fe2O3
where M is a divalent ion of a large ionic radius, such as Ba2+, Sr2+, or Pb2+ .
• Hexagonal crystal structure.
• High coercivity, high magnetic anisotropy.
• Used in permanent magnets.
Origin of Magnetism:
From Super Exchange interaction
Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum
numbers Hund’s rule: states that the spins in a partly filled shell are arranged so as to
produce the maximum spin
Super exchange:
is a strong (usually) antiferromagnetic coupling between two nearest neighbor cations
through a non-magnetic anion.
because of the Pauli Exclusion Principle both spins on d and p hybridized orbitals must
be oriented antiparallel.
this results in antiparallel coupling with the neighboring metal cation as electrons on
orbital of oxygen are also antiparallel oriented.
Double-exchange:
mechanism Magnetic exchange that may arise between ions on different oxidation
states!
Electron from oxygen orbital jumps to Mn 4+ cation, its vacant orbital can then be filled
by an electron from Mn 3+ .
Electron has moved between the neighboring metal ions, retaining its spin.
The electron movement from one cation to another is “easier” when spin direction has
not to be changed (Hund's rules).
types of spinel ferrite:
NORMAL:
•Fe3+ : B site
•Ex: (Zn)2+ [Fe]3+O4 INVERSE:
• ½ Fe3+: A site
• Me2++ ½ Fe3+: B site
• Ex: (Fe) 3+[Co 2+ Fe3+ ]O4 ; (Fe)3+[Ni 2+ Fe 3+]O4
Intermediate:
•Me2+ & Fe 3+: A, B sites
•Ex: (Me+2x Fe+31-x) [Me +21-x Fe +31+x] O4
Crystal structure: FeO·Fe2O3 (Iron ferrite)
Tetrahedral site: Fe ion is surrounded by four oxygens
Octahedral site: Fe ion is surrounded by six oxygens
Properties of Ferrites:
1. High Magnetic permeability Mn-Zn Ferrite
2. High Electrical resistivity Ni-Zn Ferrite
3. High Magnetic Anisotropy Co-Ferrite
4. Square Hysteresis Loop Li-Zn Ferrite
Lecture TEN

Definitions:
Magnetic anisotropy: is the directional dependence of a material's magnetic properties. In the
absence of an applied magnetic field, a magnetically isotropic material has no preferential direction
for its magnetic moment, while a magnetically anisotropic material will align its moment with one of
the easy axes.
An easy axis: is an energetically favorable direction of spontaneous magnetization that is
determined by the sources of magnetic anisotropy.
Magnetic anisotropy: is a prerequisite for hysteresis in ferromagnets: without it, a ferromagnet is
superparamagnetic.
Sources of anisotropy:
1. Magneto crystalline
2. Surface disorder
3. Shape
4. Interparticle coupling between particles
Magnetism at nano scale:when the size of the ferromagnet or ferrimagnet decreases below a
critical size, the amount of energy required to produce domain walls becomes greater than the
reduction in the magnetostatic energy .

As a consequence, only single domain formation is favored

A single domain particle: it consists of large numbers of atomic spins and the can be viewed as
(super moment) that has magnetic moment 103 to 105 UB where the single domain size can be
estimated from the equation

The properties of MNPs in superparamagnetic state are:

1. Each MNP is a single domain particle with volume V (below the critical volume.)
2. Each particle is spontaneously magnetizated to its saturation magnetization Ms and has an effective
anisotropy (Keff) that causes pinning of the moment to the easy axis. The spins are all parallel due to
the exchange interaction giving a single giant moment (macrospin) μ=MSV that does not depend on
the spatial orientation of the particle
3. Particles will be randomly oriented.
4. Net magnetization = zero
Total energy of particle: energy of a magnetic particle is given by the sum of the Zeeman and the
anisotropy energy terms which in a simplified form:
Lecture ELEVEN

Definitions:
1) Sol gel: is a method for producing solid materials from small
molecules.
• The method is used for the fabrication of metal oxides
especially the oxides of silicon and titanium.
• It is the process in which the solid nanoparticles are dispersed
in a liquid (a sol) and agglomerated together to form a
continuous 3-D network standing throughout the liquid (gel)

2) A sol: is a colloidal suspension of very small solid particles in a

continuous liquid medium. Examples include blood, cell fluids
and paint.
3) Gels: are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-
dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. • In this way
gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in
which the solid is the continuous phase and the liquid is the
discontinuous phase
4) A metal alkoxide (precursor):
An alkoxide consists of an organic group bonded to a negatively
charged oxygen atom. They can be written as RO− where R is
the organic substituent
5) Hydrolysis: The reaction of metal alkoxide (M-OR) with water
(from the solvent) forming a metal hydroxide. 𝑀𝑂𝑅 + 𝐻2𝑂 →
𝑀𝑂𝐻 + 𝑅𝑂𝐻 2)
6) Condensation: Metal hydroxide molecules combine with metal
alkoxide (MOR) /other metal alkoxide to give metal oxide with
water/alcohol forming as a byproduct 𝑀𝑂𝐻 + 𝑀𝑂𝐻 →
 𝑀𝑂𝑀 + 𝐻2𝑂 ( water condensation) Or 𝑀𝑂𝐻 + 𝑀𝑂𝑅 → 𝑀𝑂𝑀 +
𝑅𝑂𝐻 (alcohol condensation)
7) Gel formation: The formed molecules will begin to link together
in a 3-D network.
8) Gel point: The point at which the network of metal oxide
particles spans the entire container holding the sol. At gel point,
alcogel is formed
9) Alcogel: A wet rigid gel is formed from:
• Solid part (3D- network of metal oxide particles)
• Liquid part (solvent) filling the free space surrounding the
solid part.
10) Aging: Volatile liquids are removed from the gel network which
is strengthened by Oswald ripening.
11) Calcination or sintering: decomposition of xerogel through the
heating of metal oxide powders.
12) Supercritical drying (SCD): is a process by which the liquid in a
substance is transformed into gas in the material’s delicate
nanostructured pore network.
13) Xerogel: High density material formed by drying gel slowly in a
fluid-evaporation process making the gel’s structural network
collapses
14) Microemulsions: the thermally stable, macroscopically
homogenous and optically transparent structures, it constitutes of a
minimum of three components:
1. Polar phase (generally water)
2. Non-polar phase (generally hydrocarbon liquid or oil)
3) Surfactant.
15) Surfactant: molecules create the interfacial layer separating the
aqueous and the organic phases, reduces the interfacial tension
between the microemulsion and the excess phase and act as a steric
barrier preventing the coalescence of the droplets.
16) Precipitation: is the formation of a solid mass from a solution
after treating the solution with some chemicals.
17)Coprecipitation: is a type of precipitation where soluble
compounds in a solution are removed during the course of
precipitation