NP EFREI L01i - Efrei

Networks & Protocols
Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1
Big Picture
© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 2 version 2.1
1
Course agenda (1/3)

• Introduction (basic terms)
• Models (OSI/ISO and TCP/IP)
• Physical layer
– media
– data encoding
• Data link layer
– LAN, MAN, WAN: technologies and architectures
– Ethernet: frame format + medium-access protocol
– virtual networks (VLAN) (only mentioned)
– redundancy (STP) (only mentioned)
Course agenda (2/3)

• IP (IPv4, IPv6)
– addressing, autoconfiguration (DHCP)
– address resolution (ARP)
– control messages (ICMP)
– name resolution (DNS)
• IP routing
– static
– dynamic (RIP, OSPF)
2
Course agenda (3/3)

• Transport layer protocols (TCP, UDP)
– Reliability
– Flow and congestion control
• Application layer protocols
– HTTP + [FTP, TFTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP, …]
Quiz
• OSI model
• TCP
• ICMP
• Routing
• OSPF
• MAC address
• Switch
3
Part I
Introduction
Reference models
Basic terms
A (computer) network
nodes, links, …
4
The Internet
The Internet = a global computer network

not all computer networks are global!
Social point of view
5
Brief history of computer networks
• ARPANET (1969)
• ALOHAnet (1970)
• Internet (1980)
© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1
ARPANET
• Interface Message Processor
• The first packet switching node

(currently: router)
(University of California, Los Angeles)
6
ARPANET (1980)
Ethernet (1973)
7
Some protocols
• FTP – 1971 (RFC 114)
• DTP – 1971 (RFC 171)
• IP – 1981 (RFC 791)
• TCP – 1981 (RFC 793)
• SMTP – 1982 (RFC 821)
• HTTP – 1991
WWW (1991)
• Tim Berners-Lee (CERN)
• First WWW page:

http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html
8
Circuit-switching vs packet switching

• Similarities?
• Differences?
https://www.scaler.com/topics/images/circuit-switching-and-packet_thumbnails.webp
Circuit-switching vs packet switching

• Quality?
• Reliability?
• Fault tolerance?
Computer networks generally use

packet switching technique
https://www.teachoo.com/16343/3712/Question-12-ii/category/CBSE-
Class-12-Sample-Paper-for-2022-Boards--Term-2----Computer-Science/
9
Need for the standardization

• TODAY: huge need for global communication, stand-alone
computers are scarse
• PREVIOUSLY: closed systems – lack of interoperability
• A solution: to design and respect some rules for communication
• The end of 70’s: ISO Reference Model for Open Systems

Interconnections (OSI/ISO model) – a framework for establishment of
new standards
• Open systems: make it possible that hardware and software of various
vendors inter-communicate
Important standards organizations

• ISO – International Standards Organization
• IEEE – Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers
• IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force
• ITU-T – International Telecommunication Union -
Telecommunications Sector
• TIA/EIA – Telecommunications Industry Associations/
Electronics Industry Association
10
RFC documents
(Request for Comments)
• Official documents describing network-related
standards
– Publication process supervised by IETF
– Crucial documents of networking professionals
– Numbered, e.g. RFC 3550
• RFC 1 (7.04.1969): Host Software
• RFC 9109 (08.2021): Network Time Protocol Version 4: Port
Randomization
– Sometimes older documents are becoming obsolete
– www.rfc-editor.org or rfc-ref.org
Exercise: Read a few RFC documents
Layers of OSI/ISO model

APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
Provides communication in
a single network (single
SESSION May be responsible for
technology).
Responsible
Responsible
Responsible for
Responsible
forfor
provisioning
providing
routing.for
a
reliable
Provides
Responsible
delivery
protocols
for(e.g.
session
forTCP).
user
ofproviding
communication
Provides
common media
a logical
dataaccess
medium
TRANSPORT creation
Provides applications.
and
andprotocol
management.
addressing
and
representation.
coding
addressing.
of
inside
host of
stream
HTTP,
theImplemented
host
FTP,(port
telnet,numbers).
bySMTP,…
OS.
Implemented
addressing.
IP,data
IPX,…by OS.
NETWORK TCP, UDP, SCTP, DCCP,…
Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI,
PPP, FR…
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
11
TCP/IP model vs. OSI/ISO model
APPLICATION
APPLICATION PRESENTATION
SESSION
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
INTERNET NETWORK
DATA LINK
ACCESS
PHYSICAL
TCP/IP model vs. OSI/ISO model

• OSI/ISO model is more “classical”
• Currently, TCP/IP model is used – relates to Internet

protocols
• We still – thinking about the transport and application

layer protocols – use the terms “L4” and “L7” …
12
Communication protocol
Set of rules regarding exchange of information:
a) user data, b) control data
with the corresponding layer in another system
Protocol = {message syntax, exchange rules}
Communication in the layered

system
• Between two communicating systems:
– Each implementation of a particular OSI/ISO model’s layer in one
system communicates logically with implementation of the same
layer in the other system (peer-to-peer)
– Implementation of the other system may be different even
though the same interface is used
• Within a single system:
– Implementation of each layer is independent of the other ones
– Between neighboring layers a well-defined interface exists
13
Communication in the layered system
peer-to-peer
APPLICATION APPLICATION
PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
SESSION SESSION
TRANSPORT TRANSPORT
NETWORK NETWORK
DATA LINK DATA LINK
PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
e.g. PC/Windows 10 e.g. iPhone/iOS
Communication in the layered system

• PDU = Protocol Data Unit
– Header
– Payload
– Trailer (not obligatory)
• PDU names:
– L2: frame
– L3: datagram, packet
– L4: segment, datagram
– L7: packet, message
• Encapsulation
14
Communication in the layered

system
APPLICATION APPLICATION
PRESENTATION PRESENTATION
encapsulation
SESSION SESSION
TRANSPORT decapsulation TRANSPORT
NETWORK NETWORK
transmission medium
DATA LINK DATA LINK
PHYSICAL PHYSICAL
TCP
DATA IP
Ethernet
Encapsulation-decapsulation
• Encapsulation is performed by the sender
• Receiver must know how to interpret payload
part of the PDU
– “Type” field in Ethernet frames
– “Protocol” field in IP datagrams
– “Port number” in UDP datagrams or TCP segments
TCP
DATA IP
Ethernet
15
Benefits of using the layered model

• Independent development of particular layers
• Decreases complexity of the systems
• Enforces compatibility between
hardware/software from different vendors
• Increases progress in networking communication
• Makes learning simpler
• Makes teaching simpler
Questions
? Do you understand a concept of the layered
systems?
? Do you understand benefits of using the layered
models?
? Do you know two basic layered models?
? Do you know basic tasks of particular layers?
? Do you understand encapsulation and
decapsulation processes?
16
OSI/ISO model – a story…
Computer networks by size

• WAN (Wide Area Network)
– Connect local networks
size of the network
– The Internet is an example

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
– Universities, factories, companies,…
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• BAN (Body Area Network)
17
Symbols frequently used

layer
router 3
switch
2
bridge
hub
1
repeater
Symbols frequently used
Any network
18
Transmission modes
• simplex – one-way, always the same way
• half-duplex – two-way, but not at the same time
• full-duplex (duplex) – two way
Data flow patterns

• Unicast – to exactly one
• Multicast – to a group
• Broadcast – to all (in some range)
• Anycast – to one (best, closest) from a group
https://orhanergun.net/uploads/blog/thumbnail/unicast-vs-multicast-vs-broadcast-vs-anycast.jpeg
19
Network devices’ planes

• Networks exist to enable data transfer (video
streams, web pages, database queries, etc.)
• Network devices must be somehow configured
to decide when, where and how forward packets;
their operation must be regularly monitored
• Running network device’s configuration is the result of:
– human (administrator) configuration actions
– network automation scripts/systems using e.g. SNMP or REST
– interaction between devices (e.g. routing protocols)
• Network devices usually have various types of ports:
– For data exchange: Ethernet, serial, WiFi, xDSL, ISDN, …
– For configuration and monitoring only: console (out-of-band)
• Data ports can be also used for configuration and monitoring (via IP,
in-band)
Network devices’ planes

• Planes
– Data (forwarding) plane
• User data
• Control data not processed by this device
– Control plane
• Protocols responsible for network
operation: routing protocols, spanning-tree protocol, address resolution protocols, …
– Management plane
• Administrative access to a device: using telnet, SSH, RESTCONF, SNMP, … (over IP)
• Data (packet) processing can be performed:
– by a general purpose CPU – the cheapest, slowest and worst option
– by dedicated circuits – application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs)
• The results of control plane protocols’ operation are put into so called
Forwarding Information Base (FIB) which is used by the data plane to forward
traffic https://blog.ipspace.net/2013/08/DevicePlanes.png
20
Part II
Physical layer (L1)
Data transmission issues
Communication media
Data coding
Physical layer devices
Tasks of L1
• Providing communication medium
• Specification of electrical, mechanical,

optical etc. aspects of communication
• Coding of byte stream received from upper

layers
21
Issues related to
transmission of signals
Signal propagation speed and time

• Speed – limited
• ca. 2/3 c (velocity factor)
• RTT – round-trip-time
• 1 km – how much time does it take?
• Poland-USA – how much time does it take?
•  Tactile Internet
22
Signal attenuation
• Amplitude of the signal decreases

• Limits the maximum distance which can be
achieved
• Depends on many factors:
– Type of media
– Frequency
– Temperature
Signal attenuation
• Expressed in dB/km
– 10log(P1/P2) [dB]; P1,P2 [W]
– 20log(V1/V2) [dB]; V1,V2 [V]
• For example:
– 3 dB – power decreases 2 times
• Examples:
– Twisted pair, cat. 5, 100 MHz: ca 20 dB/100m
– Single mode fiber, 1550 nm: ca 0.5 dB/km
23
Signal distortion
• Caused by external factors: environment

• Caused by internal factors, e.g. other
cables in the patchcord
– NEXT: Near End Crosstalk
– FEXT: Far End Crosstalk
• Reduced by
– Shielding the medium (cost increases!)
– Twisting pairs in the cable
• Appropriate cabling is crucial!
www.cisco.com
Summary
• These factors must be taken into account while
designing the network!
– Appropriate medium type
– Appropriate medium length
– Appropriate cabling quality and placement
• BER, bit error rate
– In wired networks – even only 10-10
– In wireless networks – even up to 10-4
24
Communication media
Communication types
• Wired
– Copper cables
• twisted-pair
• coaxial
– Fiber cables
• Wireless
– Radio frequency (e.g. WiFi 802.11, Bluetooth 802.15)
– Infrared frequency (e.g. IrDA)
25
Cables
cable
copper fiber
twisted pair coaxial single mode multimode
shielded unshielded thin thick
Twisted pair
• Transmission performed in pairs, not single cables

• Cancellation effect
• Categories
– 5, 5e – 100 MHz, 125 MHz
– 6, 6a – 250 MHz, 500 MHz
– 7, 7a – 600 MHz, 1000 MHz
– 8.1, 8.2 – 2000 MHz (2017) www.cisco.com
26
Twisted pair cables
• STP - Shielded Twisted Pair
• FTP - Foiled Twisted Pair
• UTP - Unshielded Twisted Pair
www.cisco.com
Twisted pair cables

• U/UTP
• F/UTP
• S/UTP
• SF/UTP
• U/FTP
• F/FTP
• S/FTP
• SF/FTP
27
„Thin” coaxial cable – obsolete
Terminator
www.cisco.com
Twinax
• twinaxial cable
(twin coaxial)
• popular since 2013
• very-short-range, high-
speed differential signaling,
e.g.100GbE (7m)
28
Fiber
– Glass conductor (core)
– Cladding
– Total internal reflection
www.cisco.com,
www.fiber-optics.info/fiber-history.htm
Fiber
• Transmitter: LED or laser diode

• Receiver: fotodiode
• Resistant to electromagnetic interferences
• (D)WDM = (Dense) Wavelength Division Multiplexing
• Very low attenuation (ca. 0.5-1.5 dB/km)
• More expensive than copper media
• Difficult to install
www.cisco.com
29
Fiber cables
• Single mode (SMF)
– 8-9/125 µm
– Laser diode
– Range: up to 70-100 km
– Mainly WAN networks
• Multimode (MMF)
– 62.5/125 µm
– LED
– range: up to 2 km
– Mainly LAN networks
ww.fiber-optics.info
Fiber – windows
• 850 nm
• 1310 nm
• 1550 nm
(nm)
www.fiber-optics.info/fiber-history.htm
30
(Dense) Wavelength Division

Multiplexing – WDM, DWDM
Data encoding
31
Data encoding
• Transformation of data into the form appropriate
to send in particular medium
– Depends on the type of the medium
– Self-synchronization feature (e.g. Manchester coding)
– Not necessarily two-level only (e.g. MLT-3)
Non Return to Zero (NRZ) encoding
32
Manchester encoding
• Self-clocking 
• Significant overhead   better encoding methods
4B/5B codes
value code value code
0 (0000) 11110 8 (1000) 10010
1 (0001) 01001 9 (1001) 10011
2 (0010) 10100 A (1010) 10110
3 (0011) 10101 B (1011) 10111
4 (0100) 01010 C (1100) 11010
5 (0101) 01011 D (1101) 11011
6 (0110) 01110 E (1110) 11100
7 (0111) 01111 F (1111) 11101
33
MLT-3 coding
• Logical level: 4B/5B
• Physical level: MLT-3
• Used in Fast Ethernet
Ethernet encoding – examples
Ss
10Gbase-T: PAM16,
800Ms/sec.
34
Local computer network
– Layer 1 perspective
Layer 1 elements
• Active:
– Transceiver (transmitter-receiver)
• External
• Integrated with network cards
– Repeater
– Hub (multipoint repeater)
• Passive:
– Cables
– Plugs
– Patch panels
35
Structured cabling
• TIA/EIA 569
• “Extended star” topology
• Wiring closets
• Cabling
– Horizontal
• twisted pair, fiber (multimode)
• host-infrastructure connections
• (Wi-Fi)
– Vertical
• twisted-pair, fiber
• intra-infrastructure connections
• Documentation! https://www.aflglobal.com/Services/What-We-Do/Structured-Cabling.aspx
https://www.aci-tn.com/blog.aspx?p=well-designed-structured-cabling
Structured cabling
Source: http://www.luckyjoint.com.sg/ib
36
A simple local area network
A not-so-simple network
37
THE END
38

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Networks & Protocols

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 2 version 2.1

Course agenda (1/3)

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 3 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Course agenda (2/3)

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 4 version 2.1

Course agenda (3/3)

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 5 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 6 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 8 version 2.1

The Internet = a global computer network

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Social point of view

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 10 version 2.1

Brief history of computer networks

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

• The first packet switching node

(University of California, Los Angeles)

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

• First WWW page:

Circuit-switching vs packet switching

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Circuit-switching vs packet switching

Computer networks generally use

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 18 version 2.1

Need for the standardization

• The end of 70’s: ISO Reference Model for Open Systems

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 19 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Important standards organizations

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 20 version 2.1

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 21 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Layers of OSI/ISO model

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 22 version 2.1

TCP/IP model vs. OSI/ISO model

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 23 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

TCP/IP model vs. OSI/ISO model

• Currently, TCP/IP model is used – relates to Internet

• We still – thinking about the transport and application

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 24 version 2.1

Protocol = {message syntax, exchange rules}

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 25 version 2.1

Networks and Protocols – EFREI, lecture 1

Communication in the layered

© 2024 Łukasz Czekierda 26 version 2.1

Communication in the layered system

DATA LINK DATA LINK