Basics of Anatomy

Definition of Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the body's structure and parts.

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Basic Cell Structure and Function

1. Plasma Membrane: (cell membrane/cell wall)

The outermost layer, separating the cell from its environment.

2. Cytoplasm:

The jelly-like substance inside the cell, containing various organelles.

3. Nucleus:

The control center, containing DNA (genetic material).

4. Mitochondria:

The powerhouses, generating energy for the cell.

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

A network of tubules and sacs, involved in protein synthesis and transport.

6. Ribosomes:

Small organelles, responsible for protein synthesis.

7. Lysosomes:

Membrane-bound sacs, containing digestive enzymes.

8. Golgi Apparatus:

A complex of flattened sacs, involved in protein modification and transport.

 Cell Function:

1. Metabolism:

The processes of catabolism and anabolism together are collectively known as metabolism

Catabolism: Catabolism is the process of breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones,
often releasing energy.

Anabolism: Anabolism is the process of building complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring
energy input.

Summary of Tissue Functions

Epithelial Tissue:

Covers and protects surfaces, both external and internal.

Connective Tissue:

Supports and binds other tissues.

Muscle Tissue:

Facilitates movement of the body and its parts.

Nervous Tissue:

Conducts electrical impulses.

Specialized Epithelial Tissues

Ciliated Epithelium:

Definition: Epithelial tissue with cilia on its surface.

Example: Found in the respiratory tract (e.g., trachea) and fallopian tubes..

Glandular Epithelium:

Definition: Epithelial tissue specialized for secretion.

Example: Found in glands such as thyroid, adrenal, and sweat glands.

Function: Secretes hormones, enzymes, and other substances.

Sensory Epithelium:

Definition: Epithelial tissue specialized for sensory perception.

Example: Found in sensory organs like the retina of the eye and taste buds.

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Specialized Connective Tissues

Bone Tissue:

Structure: Hard matrix containing calcium and phosphate minerals.

Function: Provides structural support, protection for organs, and aids in movement by
anchoring muscles.

Cartilage:

Types: Hyaline (e.g., nose, trachea), Elastic (e.g., ear), Fibrocartilage (e.g., intervertebral
discs).

Function: Provides flexible support and reduces friction in joints.

Adipose Tissue:

Structure: Cells (adipocytes) filled with fat droplets.

Function: Stores energy, insulates the body, and cushions organs.

Blood:

Structure: Cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets) suspended in plasma.

Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products, and immune cells throughout
the body.

Tendon:

Definition: Dense regular connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.

Function: Transmits forces generated by muscle contraction to bones, enabling

movement and stability of joints.

Ligament:

Definition: Dense regular connective tissue that connects bone to bone.

Function: Provides stability to joints by limiting excessive movement and maintaining

proper alignment of bones.

Specialized Muscle Tissues

Cardiac Muscle:

Location: Heart.

Structure: Striated, branched fibers with intercalated discs; involuntary control.

Function: Pumps blood throughout the body.

Smooth Muscle:

Location: Walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels).

Structure: Non-striated, spindle-shaped fibers; involuntary control.

Function: Moves substances through organs (e.g., peristalsis in the digestive tract).

Skeletal Muscle:

Location: Attached to bones.

Structure: Striated, multinucleated fibers; voluntary control.

Function: Facilitates body movement, posture, and heat production.

Specialized Nervous Tissues

Neurons:

Structure: Consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

Function: Transmit electrical signals throughout the body.

Neuroglia (Glial Cells):

Types: Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, Schwann cells.

Function: Support, protect, and nourish neurons; maintain homeostasis in the nervous
system.

Body Cavities

Definition and Purpose of Body Cavities

Body cavities are fluid-filled spaces within the body that contain and protect vital organs.

They provide a structured environment where organs can expand and contract as necessary,
reduce friction between organs and surrounding structures, and help maintain internal
organization and stability.

Major Body Cavities

Dorsal Cavity

Ventral Cavity

1. Dorsal Cavity
 The dorsal cavity is located along the back (dorsal) side of the body and is divided into two main
subdivisions:

a. Cranial Cavity

Location: Within the skull.

Contents: Houses the brain.

b. Spinal Cavity (Vertebral Canal)

Location: Runs within the vertebral column.

Contents: Contains the spinal cord.

2. Ventral Cavity

The ventral cavity is located along the front (ventral) side of the body and is divided into the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities by the diaphragm.

a. Thoracic Cavity

Location: Chest area, above the diaphragm.

Contents:(sub cavities )

 Pleural Cavities: Surround each lung.

 Mediastinum: Central compartment containing the heart, thymus, esophagus,
trachea, and major blood vessels.
 Pericardial Cavity: Surrounds the heart within the mediastinum.

b. Abdominal Cavity

Location: Below the diaphragm, extending to the pelvis.

Contents:

Abdominal Cavity: Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas,

kidneys, and adrenal glands.

c. Pelvic Cavity: Contains urinary bladder, some reproductive organs (e.g., uterus, ovaries in females;
prostate in males), and the rectum.
Body Quadrants and Regions

Four Quadrants of the Abdomen

The abdomen is divided into four quadrants by a vertical and a horizontal line intersecting at the
umbilicus (navel). Each quadrant contains specific organs, and this division aids in diagnosing and
treating abdominal issues.

1. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Contents:

Liver (right lobe)

Gallbladder

Duodenum

Head of the pancreas

Right kidney and adrenal gland

Portions of the ascending and transverse colon

Part of the small intestine

2. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Contents:

Stomach

Spleen

Left lobe of the liver

Body and tail of the pancreas

Left kidney and adrenal gland

Portions of the transverse and descending colon

Part of the small intestine

3. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Contents:

Appendix

Cecum

Ascending colon
Right ovary and fallopian tube (in females)

Right ureter

Part of the small intestine

4. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Contents:

Descending colon

Sigmoid colon

Left ovary and fallopian tube (in females)

Left ureter

Part of the small intestine

Nine Regions of the Abdomen

In addition to the four quadrants, the abdomen is also divided into nine regions for more
detailed anatomical localization. This method is particularly useful in anatomical studies and
clinical examinations.

The nine regions are:

1. Right Hypochondriac Region:

a. Organs: Liver, gallbladder, right kidney.
2. Epigastric Region:
a. Organs: Stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum, spleen, adrenal glands.
3. Left Hypochondriac Region:
a. Organs: Spleen, colon, left kidney, pancreas.
4. Right Lumbar Region:
a. Organs: Ascending colon, liver, right kidney, small intestine.
5. Umbilical Region:
a. Organs: Umbilicus (navel), parts of the small intestine (duodenum), jejunum, and
ileum.
6. Left Lumbar Region:
a. Organs: Descending colon, left kidney, small intestine.
7. Right Iliac (Inguinal) Region:
a. Organs: Appendix, cecum, ascending colon, right ovary and fallopian tube (in
females).
8. Hypogastric (Pubic) Region:
a. Organs: Urinary bladder, small intestine, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs.
9. Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region:
a. Organs: Sigmoid colon, descending colon, left ovary and fallopian tube (in females).
Definition and Significance of Body Planes and Directional Terms

Body planes and directional terms

Body planes are imaginary lines that divide the body into sections. These planes help describe
locations and movements relative to the body’s structure.

Directional terms are used to explain the relative position of body parts in relation to each
other.

Major Body Planes

1. Sagittal Plane
2. Coronal (Frontal) Plane
3. Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

1. Sagittal Plane

Definition: A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left sections.

Types:

Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Divides the body into equal right and left halves.

Parasagittal Plane: Divides the body into unequal right and left sections.

2. Coronal (Frontal) Plane

Definition: A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back)
sections..

3. Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

Definition: A horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower)
sections..

Directional Terms

Anterior (Ventral) / Posterior (Dorsal)

Superior (Cranial) / Inferior (Caudal)

Medial / Lateral

Proximal / Distal

Superficial / Deep

1. Anterior (Ventral) / Posterior (Dorsal)

Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front of the body.

Example: The chest is anterior to the spine.

Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back of the body.

Example: The spine is posterior to the chest.

2. Superior (Cranial) / Inferior (Caudal)

Superior (Cranial): Toward the head or upper part of the body.

Example: The head is superior to the abdomen.

Inferior (Caudal): Away from the head or toward the lower part of the body.

Example: The abdomen is inferior to the head.

3. Medial / Lateral

Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

Example: The nose is medial to the eyes.

Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

Example: The eyes are lateral to the nose.

4. Proximal / Distal

Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or to the trunk of the body.

Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or from the trunk of the body.

Example: The wrist is distal to the elbow.

5. Superficial / Deep

Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.

Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles.

Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.

Example: The lungs are deep to the rib cage

Surgical Positions

Here are some common surgical positions:

1. Supine Position
2. Prone Position
3. Lateral Position
4. Lithotomy Position
5. Trendelenburg Position
6. Reverse Trendelenburg Position
7. Sitting (Beach Chair) Position
8. Jackknife (Kraske) Position

1. Supine Position

Description: The patient lies flat on their back with arms at their sides or extended on
armboards.

Uses: Most common surgical position, used for abdominal, cardiac, and some facial and
orthopedic surgeries.

2. Prone Position

Description: The patient lies flat on their abdomen with the head turned to one side and arms
positioned for comfort.

Uses: Spinal surgeries, rectal surgeries, and procedures involving the posterior aspect of the
body.

3. Lateral Position

Description: The patient lies on their side with the lower leg flexed and the upper leg straight.
Pillows or supports are used to maintain alignment.

Uses: Thoracic, kidney, and hip surgeries.

4. Lithotomy Position

Description: The patient lies on their back with legs elevated and supported in stirrups.

Uses: Gynecological, urological, and colorectal surgeries.

5. Trendelenburg Position

Description: The patient lies flat on their back with the head of the table tilted downward.

Uses: Pelvic surgeries, lower abdominal surgeries, and procedures to improve venous return.

6. Reverse Trendelenburg Position

Description: The patient lies flat on their back with the head of the table tilted upward.
Uses: Upper abdominal surgeries, head and neck surgeries.

7. Jackknife Position (Knee-Chest Position): The patient is placed prone with hips flexed and
knees on the table, chest resting on the table.

Uses- This position is used for surgeries involving the rectum or lower colon