AC 4
AC 4
AC 4
Let us consider a voltage v=V m sin wt being applied on a circuit containing a resistor only shown
below.
The resulting current will be i=I m sin wt and the instantaneous power will be given by
2
P=vi=( V m sin wt ) ( I m sin wt )=V m I m sin wt .
T
1 1
The average power P is given by Pav = ∫
T −0 0
2 2
V m I m sin ωt dt . But sin ωt= ( 1−cos 2 ωt ).
2
[ ]
T
1 V mIm
We get Pav = ∫ ( 1−cos 2 ωt ) dt .
T 0 2
1
PURELY INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS:
When a voltage v=V m sin wt being applied on a circuit containing a pure inductor, the resulting
(
current is i=I m sin ωt −
π
2 )
or i=−I m cos ωt .
The instantaneous power P=vi=( V m sin wt ) (−I m cos ωt ) or P=−V m I m sin ωt cos ωt .
−1
This simplifies to P= V I sin 2ωt .
2 m m
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.
T
1 −1 −1 T
The average power Pav = ∫
T 0 2
V m I m sin 2ωt . dt=
4 ωT
V m I m [ sin 2ωt ] =0.
0
(
current is i=I m sin ωt +
π
2 )
since current leads the voltage by 90 0in a capacitive circuit.
i=I m cos ωt .
2
1
This simplifies to P= V m I m sin 2ωt .
2
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.
T
1 1 1 T
The average power Pav = ∫ V I sin 2ωt . dt = 4 ωT
T 0 2 m m
V m I m [ sin 2ωt ] =0.
0
The instantaneous power P=vi=( V m sin ωt ) I m sin ( ωt+ ϕ )=V m I m sin ωt sin ( ωt + ϕ ) .
1
And applying factor formulae gives P= V m I m [ cos ϕ−cos ( 2 ωt+ ϕ ) ] … ……………(i)
2
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.
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From equation (i) , it can be seen that the instantaneous power has two components:
1
(i) V I cos ϕ , which contains no reference to ωt and therefore remains constant with
2 m m
time.
1
(ii) V I cos (2 ωt + ϕ ) , the term 2 ωt indicating that it varies at twice the supply
2 m m
frequency. From the figure above, it can be seen that the power undergoes two cycles of
variation for one cycle of the voltage wave.
It can be shown that the average value of power over one cycle is given by Pav =IV cos ϕ,
where V and I are RMS values of voltage and current respectively.
THE POWER TRIANGLE:
A phasor diagram in which the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle ϕ ( the
case of inductive circuit) is shown below. The horizontal component of V is V cos ϕ and the
vertical component of V is V sin ϕ .
If each of the voltage phasors of triangle Oab is multiplied with I , we get the power
triangle shown below.
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or
5
ACTIVE AND REACTIVE COMPONENTS OF CURRENT:
The active component ( I cos ϕ )of current is the one which is in phase with the applied
voltage. It is also referred to as the watt-full component of current.
The Reactive component ( I sin ϕ )of current is the one which is in quadrature with the
applied voltage. It is also referred to as the watt-less component of current.
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The higher the power factor of the load, the greater is the active power generated by a
given generator and transmitted by a conductor.
The lower the power factor, the larger must be the size of the source to generate that
power and greater must be the cross sectional area of the conductor top transmit and the
greater is the cost of generation and transmission. That is why supply authorities do all they
can to improve power factor and penalise customers with lower power factor.
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH POWER FACTOR:
1. Increased system capacity and reduced system losses in Electrical systems.
By adding capacitors (kvar generators) to the system, the power factor is improved and the
kW of the system is increased.
2. Lower utility charges:
Inductive loads require reactive power which cause low power factor. An increase in
reactive power causes an increase in required apparent power (kVA) which the utility is
supplying. The facility low power factor cause the utility to increase its generation and
transmission capacity in order to handle this extra demand. By raising the power factor, we
use less kvar resulting in less kW and this reduces on the peak kW billing demand.
Also utilities charge customers an additional fee when their power is less. We avoid this by
increasing the power factor. Utilities start the billing in kVAh instead of kWh and this is the
reason why controlling of power factor is essential.
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR:
1. At low power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same power,
therefore they require a larger area of cross section.
2. At low power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same power,
which increases the copper losses( I 2 R ) and results in poor efficiency of the system.
3. At low power factor, voltage drop (IR) increases, which results in poor regulation of
the system.
4. The kVA rating of electrical equipment and machines connected in power systems
such as transformers, switch gears, alternators will be more at lower power factor
since it is inversely proportional to power factor.
CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR.
1. Industrial furnaces, arc lamps, electric discharge lamps etc operate at a low power
factor.
2. Many AC machines absorb reactive power to produce their magnetic fields, and this
reduces the power factor.
3. The prescence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent
power and so the electrical load has a power factor less than unity.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT/CORRECTION:
Power factor correction is the process of adjusting the characteristics of
electric loads in order to improve power factor closer to unity.
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Power factor improvement can be done by three methods and these are:
(i) Static capacitor: Power factor can be improved by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the inductive load. The capacitor draws a leading current which
can neutralize the lagging power factor produced by the inductive loads. For
three phase loads the capacitors are connected in star or delta.
Capacitor banks are the cheapest means of generating reactive power which
also requires less maintenance.
(ii) Synchronous condensers:
Synchronous motors take the leading current when they are over excited
and therefore they behave like capacitors. Therefore an overexcited
synchronous motors running at no load us called Synchronous motor.
When such machines are connected in parallel with the supply, it takes the
leading current which partially neutralises or tend to minimise the low power
factor. Hence power factor is improved.
Synchronous condensers are used by large industries whose cost is huge.
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(iii) Apparent power
(iv) Active power.
SOLUTION:
X L =2 πfL=2 π × 60× 0.03=11.31 Ω.
1 1 1
But X C = or C= = =61.26 μF .
2 πfC 2 πf X C 2 π ×60 × 43.3
9
V 230
Impedance Z= = =46 Ω . But also P=I 2 R . We get 750=52 R .
I 5
This gives R=30 Ω.
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(iii) Reactive power in (kvars)
SOLUTION:
Poweroutput
Efficiency η= ×100.
Powerinput
10000 10000 ×100
We get 84= × 100. This gives IV = =17 kVA
IV cos ϕ 84 × 0.7
From cos ϕ=0.7 , we can get ϕ=45.570 and sin ϕ=0.714
17000
The Current I is calculate from I = =42.5 A
400
Active component of current I cos ϕ=42.5 cos 45.57 0=29.75 A
Reactive component of current I sin ϕ=42.5 sin 45.57 0=30.35 A
Reactive Power ¿ IV sin ϕ=17000 sin 45.570=12.14 kvar .
3. A single phase motor takes 50 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging from a 230 V ,50 Hz
supply. Determine the value of the shunting capacitor needed to raise the overall
power factor to 0.9 lagging.
SOLUTION:
0 0
I M =50 A , cos ϕ M =0.6∨ϕ=53.13 lag . I C =? ϕC =90 lead .
Let the Supply current be I ,∧cos ϕ=0.9 , ϕ=25.84 0 .
Now I cos ϕ=I C cos ϕ C + I M cos ϕ M . This gives I × 0.9=( 50 × 0.6 ).
This gives I =33.33 A
Also I sin ϕ=I C sin ϕ C −I M sin ϕ M .
We get −33.33 sin 25.84 0=I C sin 90 0−( 50 ×0.8 )
V
This gives I C =25.47 A . From I C = , we have I C =2 πfcV
XC
IC 25.47
Therefore C= = =352.5 μF .
2 πfV 2 π × 50× 230
4. A motor has an output of 6 kW at an efficiency 75% and a power factor of 0.64
lagging when operated from a 250 V , 60 Hz supply. It is desired to raise the power
factor to 0.925 lagging by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the motor.
Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Supply current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
SOLUTION:
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(i) Let I M =¿ Current taken by the motor, I C =¿Current taken by the Capacitor
Poweroutput
Efficiency η= ×100. From cos ϕ M =0.64 , ϕ M =50.20 .
Powerinput
10000
We get 75= ×100 . This gives I M = 6000× 100 =50 A
I m V cos ϕ 75 ×250 × 0.64
(ii) From I cos ϕ=I C cos ϕ C + I M cos ϕ M . This gives I × 0.925= (50 × 0.64 ) .
Supply current I =34.59 A
(iii) Also I sin ϕ=I C sin ϕ C −I M sin ϕ M . But cos ϕ=0.925∧ϕ=22.330 lag
Therefore I C =I M sin ϕ M −I sin ϕ .
This gives I cos ϕ=8 cos 25.840 +6 cos 00 +12 cos 49.46 0=21 A ……..(i)
Also I sin ϕ=I F sin ϕ F + I L sin ϕ L + I M sin ϕ M .
We get I sin ϕ=8 sin 25.840 +6 sin 00 +12sin−49.460 =−5.633 A ……..(ii)
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Also from cos ϕ S=0.98 , ϕ S=11.48 0 lag , cos ϕ L=0.966 lag , ϕ L=−15 0 .
Now I S cos ϕ S=I L cos ϕ L . This gives I S ×0.98=21.74 × 0.966. We get I S=21.43 A
Again I S sin−ϕ S =I C sin ϕ C + I L sin−ϕ L.
We get I C =21.74 sin 15 0−21.43 sin 11.480. This yields to I C =1.362 A
V
From I C = , we have I C =2 πfcV
XC
IC 1.362
This gives C= = =21.67 μF .
2 πfV 2 π × 50× 200
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A motor has an output of 4.8 kW at an efficiency 80 % and a power factor of 0.625
lagging when operated from a 240 V , 60 Hz supply. It is required to raise the power
factor to 0.95 lagging by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the motor.
Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Supply current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
[ Ans : 40 A , 26.32 A , 23 A , 305 μF ,5.52 kvar ]
2. A 230V 50Hz single phase supply feeds the following loads.
(i) Fluorescent lamps taking a current of 5 A at a power factor of 0.8 leading.
(ii) Incandescent lamps taking a current of 8 A at unity power factor.
(iii) A motor taking a current of 7 A at a power factor of 0.75 lagging.
Determine the total current taken from the supply, active power, reactive power
and the overall power factor.
[ 17.35 A ,3967 W ,375 var ,0.996 lagging ]
3. A single phase load of takes 5 kW operates at t a power factor of 0.6 lagging .
Determine the value of the shunting capacitor needed to raise the overall power
factor to 0.95 lagging. [ Ans :5.02 kVA ].
4. A 250V 50Hz single phase supply feeds the following loads.
(i) Fluorescent lamps taking a current of 8 A at a power factor of 0.7 leading.
(ii) Incandescent lamps taking a current of 10 A at unity power factor.
(iii) A 3kVA motor operating at full load and at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
(iv) A static capacitor
Determine for lamps and motor the
(a) Total current taken from the supply, active power, reactive power and
(b) Overall power factor.
(c) Total power
(d) Value of the static capacitor to improve the overall power factor to 0.975
lagging. [ 28.31 A ,0.890 lagging , 6.3 kW , 91.27 μF ]
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