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POWER IN AC CIRCUITS:

POWER IN A PURELY RESISTIVE AC CIRCUIT.

Let us consider a voltage v=V m sin wt being applied on a circuit containing a resistor only shown
below.

The resulting current will be i=I m sin wt and the instantaneous power will be given by
2
P=vi=( V m sin wt ) ( I m sin wt )=V m I m sin wt .

The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.

T
1 1
The average power P is given by Pav = ∫
T −0 0
2 2
V m I m sin ωt dt . But sin ωt= ( 1−cos 2 ωt ).
2

[ ]
T
1 V mIm
We get Pav = ∫ ( 1−cos 2 ωt ) dt .
T 0 2

This yields to Pav =¿


V mIm
2T [
t−
1

T V m Im
sin 2 ωt =
0 2 ]
V mIm
Therefore, the average power Pav = .
2
Vm Im ( √ 2 V ) √2 I
From V RMS= ,∧I RMS= , we get P= =VI .
√2 √2 2

Note: V RMS=V ∧I RMS=I .


2
V
Therefore P=VI =I R= .
2
R

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PURELY INDUCTIVE AC CIRCUITS:
When a voltage v=V m sin wt being applied on a circuit containing a pure inductor, the resulting

(
current is i=I m sin ωt −
π
2 )
or i=−I m cos ωt .

The instantaneous power P=vi=( V m sin wt ) (−I m cos ωt ) or P=−V m I m sin ωt cos ωt .

−1
This simplifies to P= V I sin 2ωt .
2 m m
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.

T
1 −1 −1 T
The average power Pav = ∫
T 0 2
V m I m sin 2ωt . dt=
4 ωT
V m I m [ sin 2ωt ] =0.
0

Therefore the average power in a purely inductive ac circuit is zero.


From the above diagram, it is seen that the frequency of the power is twice that of v∨i.
Also from the graph, it is seen that for a complete cycle, the power is zero. When v∧i are
positive, power is positive and energy is delivered to the load, when v∧i have opposite
signs power is negative and energy is returned from the inductor to the source.
When the current in an inductor is increasing, energy is transferred from the circuit
to the magnetic field, but this energy is returned when the current is decreasing.
PURELY CAPACITIVE AC CIRCUITS:
When a voltage v=V m sin wt being applied on a circuit containing a pure inductor, the resulting

(
current is i=I m sin ωt +
π
2 )
since current leads the voltage by 90 0in a capacitive circuit.

i=I m cos ωt .

The instantaneous power P=vi=( V m sin wt ) ( I m cos ωt ) or P=V m I m sin ωt cos ωt .

2
1
This simplifies to P= V m I m sin 2ωt .
2
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.

T
1 1 1 T
The average power Pav = ∫ V I sin 2ωt . dt = 4 ωT
T 0 2 m m
V m I m [ sin 2ωt ] =0.
0

Therefore the average power in a purely capacitive ac circuit is zero.


When the voltage across the capacitor is increasing, energy is transferred from
the circuit to the electric field, but this energy is returned when the voltage is
decreasing.
R-L or R-C AC CIRCUITS:
Let a voltage v=V m sin ωt be applied on a circuit containing a resistor and inductor or a resistor
and a capacitor. The resulting current will be given by i=I m sin ( ωt+ ϕ ) where ϕ will be positive for
an RC circuit and negative for an RL circuit.

The instantaneous power P=vi=( V m sin ωt ) I m sin ( ωt+ ϕ )=V m I m sin ωt sin ( ωt + ϕ ) .

Or P=V m I m sin ωt sin ( ωt+ ϕ ) .

1
And applying factor formulae gives P= V m I m [ cos ϕ−cos ( 2 ωt+ ϕ ) ] … ……………(i)
2
The waveforms of v , i∧P are shown below.

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From equation (i) , it can be seen that the instantaneous power has two components:
1
(i) V I cos ϕ , which contains no reference to ωt and therefore remains constant with
2 m m
time.
1
(ii) V I cos (2 ωt + ϕ ) , the term 2 ωt indicating that it varies at twice the supply
2 m m
frequency. From the figure above, it can be seen that the power undergoes two cycles of
variation for one cycle of the voltage wave.

It can be shown that the average value of power over one cycle is given by Pav =IV cos ϕ,
where V and I are RMS values of voltage and current respectively.
THE POWER TRIANGLE:
A phasor diagram in which the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle ϕ ( the
case of inductive circuit) is shown below. The horizontal component of V is V cos ϕ and the
vertical component of V is V sin ϕ .

If each of the voltage phasors of triangle Oab is multiplied with I , we get the power
triangle shown below.

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or

There are various terms to consider in this power triangle.


(i) True or Active power P=VI cos ϕ measured in Watts.
The active power is also referred to as the real power and is the rate of energy
conversion or dissipation taken as an average over one or more complete cycles.
It can also be defined as the time average of the instantaneous product of
voltage and current.

(ii) Reactive Power Q=VI sin ϕ measured in vars(var).


The reactive power is the peak rate of energy storage in the reactive elements of
the circuit. The average rate of energy storage is zero, the energy continually
flowing into and back out from the reactive components. This reactive power is
sometimes referred to as the imaginary power.
(iii) Apparent Power is the product of the RMS voltage and current. It is measured in
Volt-amperes (VA) . The apparent power is the useful means of rating an
equipment bearing in mind that the conductor has heat losses.
(iv) Power factor: This is the ratio of active power P to the apparent power S.
Active Power P P
Power factor ¿ , Or cos ϕ= = .
Apparent Power S VI

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ACTIVE AND REACTIVE COMPONENTS OF CURRENT:
The active component ( I cos ϕ )of current is the one which is in phase with the applied
voltage. It is also referred to as the watt-full component of current.
The Reactive component ( I sin ϕ )of current is the one which is in quadrature with the
applied voltage. It is also referred to as the watt-less component of current.

WHY ARE TRANSFORMERS AND ALTERNATORS RATED IN kVA.


It is so because the maximum apparent power to be carried out by these electrical machines
has a direct influence on its physical size.
As the operating current of an electrical machine increases, we have to employ thicker
conductor and size of cable.
As the line voltage becomes higher, we have to provide greater insulation which results in
increase in size of the machine.
Therefore, the size of an electrical equipment depends upon the product VI and that is why
these electrical components are rated in VA or kVA.
IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR:

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The higher the power factor of the load, the greater is the active power generated by a
given generator and transmitted by a conductor.
The lower the power factor, the larger must be the size of the source to generate that
power and greater must be the cross sectional area of the conductor top transmit and the
greater is the cost of generation and transmission. That is why supply authorities do all they
can to improve power factor and penalise customers with lower power factor.
ADVANTAGES OF HIGH POWER FACTOR:
1. Increased system capacity and reduced system losses in Electrical systems.
By adding capacitors (kvar generators) to the system, the power factor is improved and the
kW of the system is increased.
2. Lower utility charges:
Inductive loads require reactive power which cause low power factor. An increase in
reactive power causes an increase in required apparent power (kVA) which the utility is
supplying. The facility low power factor cause the utility to increase its generation and
transmission capacity in order to handle this extra demand. By raising the power factor, we
use less kvar resulting in less kW and this reduces on the peak kW billing demand.
Also utilities charge customers an additional fee when their power is less. We avoid this by
increasing the power factor. Utilities start the billing in kVAh instead of kWh and this is the
reason why controlling of power factor is essential.
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR:
1. At low power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same power,
therefore they require a larger area of cross section.
2. At low power factor, conductors have to carry more current for the same power,
which increases the copper losses( I 2 R ) and results in poor efficiency of the system.
3. At low power factor, voltage drop (IR) increases, which results in poor regulation of
the system.
4. The kVA rating of electrical equipment and machines connected in power systems
such as transformers, switch gears, alternators will be more at lower power factor
since it is inversely proportional to power factor.
CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR.
1. Industrial furnaces, arc lamps, electric discharge lamps etc operate at a low power
factor.
2. Many AC machines absorb reactive power to produce their magnetic fields, and this
reduces the power factor.
3. The prescence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent
power and so the electrical load has a power factor less than unity.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT/CORRECTION:
Power factor correction is the process of adjusting the characteristics of
electric loads in order to improve power factor closer to unity.

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Power factor improvement can be done by three methods and these are:
(i) Static capacitor: Power factor can be improved by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the inductive load. The capacitor draws a leading current which
can neutralize the lagging power factor produced by the inductive loads. For
three phase loads the capacitors are connected in star or delta.

Capacitor banks are the cheapest means of generating reactive power which
also requires less maintenance.
(ii) Synchronous condensers:
Synchronous motors take the leading current when they are over excited
and therefore they behave like capacitors. Therefore an overexcited
synchronous motors running at no load us called Synchronous motor.
When such machines are connected in parallel with the supply, it takes the
leading current which partially neutralises or tend to minimise the low power
factor. Hence power factor is improved.
Synchronous condensers are used by large industries whose cost is huge.

(iii) Phase advancers:


Phase advancer is a power factor improvement device. Phase advancer in real
is an external ac excitation for the motor which relieves the stator windings of exciting
current and the power factor is improved. It actually compensates the reactive power
required and this further neutralises the lagging current I.
Example:
1. A coil having a resistance of 6 Ω and an inductance of 0.03H is connected across a
50V, 60Hz supply. Calculate the:
(i) Current
(ii) Phase angle between current and applied voltage.

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(iii) Apparent power
(iv) Active power.
SOLUTION:
X L =2 πfL=2 π × 60× 0.03=11.31 Ω.

The Impedance Z=√ R 2+ X L2. This gives Z=√ 62 +11.312=12.8 Ω.


V V 50
From Z= , we have I = = =3.906 A . The Phasor diagram is shown below.
I Z 12.8

It is seen that tan ϕ=


XL
R
or ϕ=tan (
−1 11.31
6 )
=620 .

Apparent Power¿ VI =50 ×3.906=195.3 VA


Active Power¿ VI cos ϕ=50 ×3.906 cos 620=91.69 Watts .
2. A circuit consisting of a resistor in series with a capacitor takes 100 W at a power
factor 0.5 ¿ 100 V ,60 Hz supply. Find the:
(i) Current flowing
(ii) Phase angle
(iii) Resistance
(iv) Impedance and Capacitance.
SOLUTION:
From P=IV cos ϕ . Therefore 100=I ×100 × 0.5 Or I =2 A .
From cos ϕ=0.5∨ϕ=cos−1 ( 0.5 )=60 0 leading.
From P=I 2 R . This gives 100=22 × R . We get R=25 Ω
V 100
Impedance Z= = =50 Ω . Also from Z=√ R 2+ X C 2 , X C =√ Z 2−R2.
I 2

This gives X C =√ 50 2−252 or X C =43.3 Ω

1 1 1
But X C = or C= = =61.26 μF .
2 πfC 2 πf X C 2 π ×60 × 43.3

3. An inductor coil is connected to a supply of 230 V ,50 Hz and takes a current of 5 A .


The coil dissipates 750 W . Calculate the:
(i) Resistance and Inductance of the Coil.
(ii) Power factor of the coil.
SOLUTION:

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V 230
Impedance Z= = =46 Ω . But also P=I 2 R . We get 750=52 R .
I 5
This gives R=30 Ω.

Also from Z=√ R 2+ X L2 , X L =√ Z 2−R2.

This gives X L =√ 462−302 or X L =34.87 Ω .

From X L =2 πfL , then 34.87=2 πfL=2 π ×50 × L.


This gives L=0.111 H Or L=111 mH .
From P=IV cos ϕ , we have 750=5× 230 cos ϕ or cos ϕ=0.652 lag .
4. The power taken by an inductive circuit when connected to a 120 V ,50 Hz supply is
400 W and the current is 8 A . Calculate the:
(i) Resistance (ii) Impedance (iii) Reactance and Powerfactor (iv) Phase angle
between voltage and current. [ Ans :6.25 Ω ,15 Ω, 13.64 Ω , 0.4167 , 65.370 ]
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A substation is supplying 200 kVA and 150 kvar . Calculate the corresponding power
and Power factor.[ 132 kW , 0.66 ] .
2. A Load takes 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the Apparent Power
and reactive Power. [ 62.5 kVA , 37.5 kvar ].
3. A coil of resistance 400 Ω and impedance 0.20 H is connected to a 75 V , 400 Hz
supply. Calculate the power dissipated in the coil. [ 5.452W ].
4. A Voltage of v=200 sin ωt is applied across a pure resistance of 1.5 k Ω . Find the
power dissipated in the resistor. [ 13.33 W ] .
Example:
1. A single phase motor takes 30 A at a power factor of 0.65 lagging from a
240 V ,50 Hz supply. Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the capacitor connected in parallel to correct the power factor
to unity.
(ii) Value of supply current after power factor correction.
SOLUTION:
0 0
(i) I M =30 A ,cos ϕ M =0.65∨ϕ=49.46 lag . I C =? ϕC =90 lead .
Since the power factor is to be improved to unity, the phase difference between the
supply voltage and current should be zero. Therefore I C =I M sin ϕ M
0
I C =30 sin 49.46 =22.80 A .
(ii) Supply current I =I M cos ϕ M . This gives I =30 ×0.65=19.5 A
2. A single phase motor operating off at 400V, 50Hz supply is developing 10kW at an
efficiency of 84% and a power factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate the:
(i) Input apparent power
(ii) Active and reactive components of the current

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(iii) Reactive power in (kvars)
SOLUTION:
Poweroutput
Efficiency η= ×100.
Powerinput
10000 10000 ×100
We get 84= × 100. This gives IV = =17 kVA
IV cos ϕ 84 × 0.7
From cos ϕ=0.7 , we can get ϕ=45.570 and sin ϕ=0.714
17000
The Current I is calculate from I = =42.5 A
400
Active component of current I cos ϕ=42.5 cos 45.57 0=29.75 A
Reactive component of current I sin ϕ=42.5 sin 45.57 0=30.35 A
Reactive Power ¿ IV sin ϕ=17000 sin 45.570=12.14 kvar .
3. A single phase motor takes 50 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging from a 230 V ,50 Hz
supply. Determine the value of the shunting capacitor needed to raise the overall
power factor to 0.9 lagging.
SOLUTION:
0 0
I M =50 A , cos ϕ M =0.6∨ϕ=53.13 lag . I C =? ϕC =90 lead .
Let the Supply current be I ,∧cos ϕ=0.9 , ϕ=25.84 0 .
Now I cos ϕ=I C cos ϕ C + I M cos ϕ M . This gives I × 0.9=( 50 × 0.6 ).
This gives I =33.33 A
Also I sin ϕ=I C sin ϕ C −I M sin ϕ M .
We get −33.33 sin 25.84 0=I C sin 90 0−( 50 ×0.8 )
V
This gives I C =25.47 A . From I C = , we have I C =2 πfcV
XC
IC 25.47
Therefore C= = =352.5 μF .
2 πfV 2 π × 50× 230
4. A motor has an output of 6 kW at an efficiency 75% and a power factor of 0.64
lagging when operated from a 250 V , 60 Hz supply. It is desired to raise the power
factor to 0.925 lagging by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the motor.
Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Supply current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
SOLUTION:

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(i) Let I M =¿ Current taken by the motor, I C =¿Current taken by the Capacitor
Poweroutput
Efficiency η= ×100. From cos ϕ M =0.64 , ϕ M =50.20 .
Powerinput
10000
We get 75= ×100 . This gives I M = 6000× 100 =50 A
I m V cos ϕ 75 ×250 × 0.64
(ii) From I cos ϕ=I C cos ϕ C + I M cos ϕ M . This gives I × 0.925= (50 × 0.64 ) .
Supply current I =34.59 A
(iii) Also I sin ϕ=I C sin ϕ C −I M sin ϕ M . But cos ϕ=0.925∧ϕ=22.330 lag
Therefore I C =I M sin ϕ M −I sin ϕ .

We get I C =( 50 sin 50.20 )− ( 34.59 sin22.33 0 )=25.27 A


V
(iv) From I C = , we have I C =2 πfcV
XC
IC 25.27
This gives C= = =268 .1 μF .
2 πfV 2 π × 60 ×250
Rating of Capacitor (kvar) ¿ I C V sin ϕ C =25.27 × 250 sin 900=6.317 kvar
5. A 200V 50Hz single phase supply feeds the following loads.
(i) Fluorescent lamps taking a current of 8 A at a power factor of 0.9 leading.
(ii) Incandescent lamps taking a current of 6 A at unity power factor.
(iii) A motor taking a current of 12 A at a power factor of 0.65 lagging.
Determine the total current taken from the supply and the overall power factor.
Find also the value of the static capacitor connected in parallel with the loads to
improve the power factor to 0.98 lagging.
SOLUTION:
Let I =¿ Total current, I F =¿ Current taken by fluorescent lamps,
I L =¿ Current taken by Incandescent lamps, I M =¿ Current taken by motor.

From cos ϕ F =0.9 , ϕ F =25.84 0 ,cos ϕ L =1 , ϕ L =00 , cos ϕ M =0.65 , ϕ M =49.46 0 .


I cos ϕ=I F cos ϕ F + I L cos ϕ L + I M cos ϕ M .

This gives I cos ϕ=8 cos 25.840 +6 cos 00 +12 cos 49.46 0=21 A ……..(i)
Also I sin ϕ=I F sin ϕ F + I L sin ϕ L + I M sin ϕ M .
We get I sin ϕ=8 sin 25.840 +6 sin 00 +12sin−49.460 =−5.633 A ……..(ii)

From (i) and (ii), I =√ 212+ (−5.633 )2=21.74 A


−5.633 0
From (i) and (ii), we get tan ϕ= , ϕ=−15 .
21
The current taken from the supply is 21.54 A at a power factor of 0.966 lagging.

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Also from cos ϕ S=0.98 , ϕ S=11.48 0 lag , cos ϕ L=0.966 lag , ϕ L=−15 0 .
Now I S cos ϕ S=I L cos ϕ L . This gives I S ×0.98=21.74 × 0.966. We get I S=21.43 A
Again I S sin−ϕ S =I C sin ϕ C + I L sin−ϕ L.
We get I C =21.74 sin 15 0−21.43 sin 11.480. This yields to I C =1.362 A
V
From I C = , we have I C =2 πfcV
XC
IC 1.362
This gives C= = =21.67 μF .
2 πfV 2 π × 50× 200
TRIAL QUESTIONS:
1. A motor has an output of 4.8 kW at an efficiency 80 % and a power factor of 0.625
lagging when operated from a 240 V , 60 Hz supply. It is required to raise the power
factor to 0.95 lagging by connecting a capacitor in parallel with the motor.
Determine the:
(i) Current taken by the motor
(ii) Supply current after power factor correction
(iii) Current taken by the capacitor
(iv) Capacitance of the capacitor and its rating in kvar.
[ Ans : 40 A , 26.32 A , 23 A , 305 μF ,5.52 kvar ]
2. A 230V 50Hz single phase supply feeds the following loads.
(i) Fluorescent lamps taking a current of 5 A at a power factor of 0.8 leading.
(ii) Incandescent lamps taking a current of 8 A at unity power factor.
(iii) A motor taking a current of 7 A at a power factor of 0.75 lagging.
Determine the total current taken from the supply, active power, reactive power
and the overall power factor.
[ 17.35 A ,3967 W ,375 var ,0.996 lagging ]
3. A single phase load of takes 5 kW operates at t a power factor of 0.6 lagging .
Determine the value of the shunting capacitor needed to raise the overall power
factor to 0.95 lagging. [ Ans :5.02 kVA ].
4. A 250V 50Hz single phase supply feeds the following loads.
(i) Fluorescent lamps taking a current of 8 A at a power factor of 0.7 leading.
(ii) Incandescent lamps taking a current of 10 A at unity power factor.
(iii) A 3kVA motor operating at full load and at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
(iv) A static capacitor
Determine for lamps and motor the
(a) Total current taken from the supply, active power, reactive power and
(b) Overall power factor.
(c) Total power
(d) Value of the static capacitor to improve the overall power factor to 0.975
lagging. [ 28.31 A ,0.890 lagging , 6.3 kW , 91.27 μF ]

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