ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to [Your

Teacher’s Name], for providing invaluable guidance and
support throughout the course of this assignment. Their
insights and feedback have been instrumental in shaping
my understanding of matrices.
I would also like to thank my classmates and friends for
their encouragement and collaboration during the
research phase.
Lastly, I extend my gratitude to the authors and
researchers whose works have contributed to the field of
matrices and linear algebra, serving as the foundation
for this assignment.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction

2. Basic Definitions and Operations on Matrices

2.1 What is a Matrix?

2.2 Types of Matrices

2.3 Matrix Operations

- Addition

- Scalar Multiplication

- Matrix Multiplication

3. Determinants and Inverse of a Matrix

3.1 Determinants

3.2 Properties of Determinants

3.3 Inverse of a Matrix

3.4 Methods of Finding the Inverse

4. Applications of Matrices

4.1 System of Linear Equations

4.2 Computer Graphics

4.3 Cryptography

4.4 Economics and Business

5. Advanced Matrix Concepts

5.1 Eigen values and Eigenvectors

5.2 Diagonalization

5.3 Singular Value Decomposition

6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION
Matrices are rectangular arrays of numbers or functions
arranged in rows and columns. They are fundamental
objects in the field of linear algebra and are used
extensively in various branches of mathematics, physics,
engineering, and computer science. A matrix can
represent a system of linear equations, transformations
in space, or data in many contexts.

This assignment covers the basic concepts and

operations related to matrices, starting from the
definition and moving towards more advanced topics. It
provides insight into the uses of matrices in solving
problems related to linear systems, computer graphics,
cryptography, economics, and more. Through the study
of matrices, one learns not only algebraic manipulation
but also the structure and properties of linear systems
and spaces.

By understanding matrices and their applications, we can

model and solve a wide range of real-world problems
that involve systems with multiple variables or
dimensions.
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND OPERATIONS ON MATRICES
What is Matrix?
A rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or any type of
entries arranged in the form of rows and columns is
called Matrix. A matrix has one or more than one number
of rows and columns. The horizontal arrangement of
elements is called Row and the vertical arrangement is
called the column of matrix. Each element of a matrix is
identified by its position which is given by the row and
column in which it is present.

Types of Matrices
Different types of Matrices and their forms are used for solving
numerous problems. Some of them are as follows:

1) Row Matrix
A row matrix has only one row but any number of columns. A
matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

2) Column Matrix
A column matrix has only one column but any number of rows.
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
3) Square Matrix
A square matrix has the number of columns equal to the number
of rows. A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the
number of columns is said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n
matrix is said to be a square matrix if m = n and is known as a
square matrix of order ‘n’.

4) Rectangular Matrix
A matrix is said to be a rectangular matrix if the number of rows
is not equal to the number of columns.

5) Diagonal matrix
A square matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a
diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements are zero, that is
a matrix B =[bij]m×m is said to be a diagonal matrix if bij = 0, when
i ≠ j.

6) Scalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if all the elements
in its principal diagonal are equal to some non-zero constant. A
diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal
elements are equal, that is, a square matrix B = [bij]n × n is said to
be a scalar matrix if

 b = 0, when i ≠ j
ij

 b = k, when i = j, for some constant k.

ij

7) Zero or Null Matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its
elements are zero. We denote zero matrix by O.
8) Unit or Identity Matrix
If a square matrix has all elements 0 and each diagonal elements
are non-zero, it is called identity matrix and denoted by I.
Equal Matrices: Two matrices are said to be equal if they are of
the same order and if their corresponding elements are equal to
the square matrix A = [aij]n × n is an identity matrix if

 a = 1 if i = j
ij

 a = 0 if i ≠ j
ij

We denote the identity matrix of order n by In. When the order is

clear from the context, we simply write it as I.

9) Upper Triangular Matrix

A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal
are zero is known as the upper triangular matrix.

10) Lower Triangular Matrix

A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal
are zero is known as the upper triangular matrix.
Operations on Matrices
Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic
operations on the matrix. To add or subtract matrices,
these must be of identical order, and for multiplication, the
number of columns in the first matrix equals the number of
rows in the second matrix.

 Addition of Matrices
 Subtraction of Matrices
 Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
 Multiplication of Matrices

Addition of Matrices
If A[aij]mxn and B[bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order,
then their sum A + B is a matrix, and each element of that
matrix is the sum of the corresponding elements, i.e. A + B
= [aij + bij]mxn
Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then,
the sum is given by:

Properties of Matrix Addition: If a, B and C are matrices of the

same order, then
(a) Commutative Law: A + B = B + A
(b) Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(c) Identity of the Matrix: A + O = O + A = A, where O is
a zero matrix which is the additive identity of the matrix,
Subtraction of Matrices

Consider the two matrices, A and B, of order 2 x 2. Then,

the difference is given by:

We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element

of one matrix from the corresponding element of the
second matrix, i.e. A – B = [aij – bij]mxn.

Scalar Multiplication of Matrices

If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k any number, then the matrix
which is obtained by multiplying the elements of A by k is
called the scalar multiplication of A by k, and it is denoted
by k A, thus if A = [aij]m×n,
Then k A m× n= A m ×n k=[k ai × j ]
Properties of Scalar Multiplication :
If A and B are matrices of the
same order and λ and μ are any two scalars, then,
(a) λ(A + B) = λA + λB
(b) (λ + μ)A = λA + μA
(c) λ(μA) = (λμA) = μ(λA)
(d) (-λA) = -(λA) = λ(-A)
(e) tr(kA) = k tr(A)

Multiplication of Matrices
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will
be defined only when the number of columns in A is equal
to the number of rows in B.
 DETERMINANTS AND INVERSE OF A MATRIX

Definition of Determinant of Matrix

The determinant of a matrix is the scalar value or number
calculated using a square matrix. The square matrix could
be 2×2, 3×3, 4×4, or any type, such as n × n, where the
number of column and rows are equal. If S is the set of

and f : S → R is defined by f (A) = k, where A ∈ S and k ∈

square matrices, R is the set of numbers (real or complex)

R, then f (A) is called the determinant of A.

Symbol
The determinant of a matrix is represented by two vertical
lines or simply by writing det and writing the matrix name.
eg. |A|, det(A), det A

Calculating the Determinant

To find a Determinant of a matrix, for every square matrix
[A]nxn there exists a determinant to the matrix such that it
represents a unique value given by applying some
determinant finding techniques.

Determinant of 1 × 1 matrix
If [A] = [a] then its determinant is given as |a| which is
equal to the value enclosed in the matrix.
The value of thedeterminant of a 2 × 2 matrix can be given
as
det A = a11×a22–a12×a21
Let us take an example to understand this very clearly,
Example 1: The matrix is given by, A =

[ 34 −13 ]
Find the value of |A|.
Solution: We know the determinant can be calculated as:
|A| = (3 × 3) – (-1 × 4 )
|A| = 13
Thus, the value of the determinant of a matrix is a unique
value in nature.
Important Properties of Determinants

1. Reflection Property
The determinant remains unaltered if its rows are changed
into columns and the columns into rows. This is known as
the property of reflection.

2. All-zero Property
If all the elements of a row (or column) are zero, then the
determinant is zero.
3. Proportionality (Repetition) Property
If all elements of a row (or column) are proportional
(identical) to the elements of some other row (or column),
then the determinant is zero.

4. Switching Property
The interchange of any two rows (or columns) of the
determinant changes its sign.

5. Scalar Multiple Property

If all the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant
are multiplied by a non-zero constant, then the determinant
gets multiplied by the same constant.

6. Factor Property
If a determinant Δ becomes zero when we put x = α, then
(x – α) is a factor of Δ.
Matrix Inverse
If A is a non-singular square matrix, there is an existence
of n x n matrix A-1, which is called the inverse matrix of A
such that it satisfies the property:
AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the Identity matrix
The identity matrix for the 2 x 2 matrix is given by

Learn: Identity matrix

It is noted that in order to find the inverse matrix, the
square matrix should be non-singular whose determinant
value does not equals to zero.
Let us take the square matrix A

Where a, b, c, and d represents the number.

The determinant of the matrix A is written as ad-bc, where
the value of determinant should not equal to zero for the
existence of inverse. The inverse matrix can be found for
2× 2, 3× 3, …n × n matrices. Finding the inverse of a 3×3
matrix is a bit more difficult than finding the inverses of a 2
×2 matrix.

Inverse Matrix Method

The inverse of a matrix can be found using the three
different methods. However, any of these three methods
will produce the same result.
Method 1:

Similarly, we can find the inverse of a 3×3 matrix by finding

the determinant value of the given matrix.

Method 2:
One of the most important methods of finding the matrix
inverse involves finding the minors and cofactors of
elements of the given matrix. Observe the below steps to
understand this method clearly.

 The inverse matrix is also found using the following

equation:
A-1= adj(A)/det(A),
where adj(A) refers to the adjoint of a matrix
A, det(A) refers to the determinant of a matrix A.

 The adjoint of a matrix A or adj(A) can be found using

the following method.
In order to find the adjoint of a matrix A first, find the
cofactor matrix of a given matrix and then
take the transpose of a cofactor matrix.

 The cofactor of a matrix can be obtained as

Cij = (-1)i+j det (Mij)
Here, Mij refers to the (i,j)th minor matrix after removing the
ith row and the jth column. You can also say that the
transpose of a cofactor matrix is also called the adjoint of a
matrix A.
Learn how to find the adjoint of a matrix here.
Similarly, we can also find the inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix.
Here also the first step would be to find the determinant,
followed by the next step – Transpose.

Method 3:
Finding an Inverse Matrix by Elementary
Transformation
Let us consider three matrices X, A and B such that X =
AB. To determine the inverse of a matrix using elementary
transformation, we convert the given matrix into an identity
matrix. Learn more about how to do elementary
transformations of matrices here.
If the inverse of matrix A, A-1 exists then to determine A-
1
using elementary row operations

1. Write A = IA, where I is the identity matrix of the same

order as A.
2. Apply a sequence of row operations till we get an
identity matrix on the LHS and use the same
elementary operations on the RHS to get I = BA. The
matrix B on the RHS is the inverse of matrix A.
3. To find the inverse of A using column operations,
write A = IA and apply column operations sequentially
till I = AB is obtained, where B is the inverse matrix of
A.