International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering

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The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the

engineering properties of expansive soils

Chukwuebuka Emeh & Ogbonnaya Igwe

To cite this article: Chukwuebuka Emeh & Ogbonnaya Igwe (2016): The combined effect of
wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils, International Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2015.1125412

Published online: 06 Jan 2016.

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 The combined effect of wood ash and lime on
the engineering properties of expansive soils
Chukwuebuka Emeh* and Ogbonnaya Igwe
This work assessed the combined effect of wood ash a waste product from a bread bakery and lime
(calcium oxide) on the geotechnical properties of expansive soils collected from Awgu (southeastern
Nigeria). The mineralogical composition of the soil and chemical composition of the wood ash were
analyzed using X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence method, respectively. The geotechnical properties
of the soil such as grain size distribution, consistency limits, free swell potential, compaction, and
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unconfined compressive strength of the natural soil and that of the soil with varying proportion of wood
ash and lime was also examined. The results revealed that the natural soil which is classified as highly
plastic inorganic soil, on addition of wood ash and lime in the optimum proportion of 78%-18%-4% by
weight of soil-wood ash-lime admixture showed reduction in the plasticity index and linear shrinkage,
thus improving the workability of the natural soil. There was also reduction in the free swell potential
of the natural soil, improvement in the compaction properties of the natural soil, and increase in the
shear strength value of the natural soil which drastically improved more after 28 days of curing. It was
therefore concluded that high plastic inorganic soils can successfully be stabilized for use in pavement
construction with the combined effect of wood ash and lime, which will not only reduce the cost
of carrying out engineering projects, but also reduces the environmental problems associated with
indiscriminate disposal of wood ash.
Keywords: Wood ash, Lime, Expansive soil, Stabilization, Geotechnical properties

Introduction exchange with the clay minerals that cause the expansion,
mechanical stabilization only reduces the void ratio of the soil
Expansive soils, which mostly originate from argillaceous (Eskisar, 2015; Mitchell and Soga, 2005; Show et al., 2003;
sediments, are soils characterized by expansion in wet condi- Sivapullaiah, 2006). However, industrial stabilizing sub-
tions and shrinkage in dry conditions. Wetting and drying of stances like lime, quick lime, and Portland cement are most
expansive soils result to its heaving and cracking respectively; often expensive which warrants the researching into alternative
a behavior that results from its high clay mineral contents (over cheaper source of stabilizers.
65% of the total mineralogy). Most often, this heaving and Works by Okagbue and Onyeobi (1999), Baser (2009)
cracking result in failure of civil engineering structures sup- and Agrawal and Gupta (2011) reveal that the use of marble
ported by the expansive soil (Holtz, 1983; Taylor and Smith, dust as soil stabilizer reduced its (soil) plasticity, increased
1986; Uduji et al., 1994; Wray and Mayer, 2004). Due to the the strength (unconfined compressive strength and California
damages (failures) caused by expansive soils, there is always bearing ratio), and reduced the maximum dry density (MDD).
need to improve their bearing capacity through mechanical Their works revealed that the maximum strength of the stabi-
or chemical stabilization. Works by Al-Rawasa et al. (2005), lized soil was attained at about 8% marble dust and 92% soil
Buhler and Cerato (2007) reveal that chemical stabilization admixtures but can only be successfully used as base of lightly
using substances like lime and Portland cement, which are the trafficked and sub-base of heavily trafficked flexible pave-
conventional stabilizers, is more effective and/or economical ments. In using limestone ash waste to stabilize soil, Okagbue
than mechanical stabilization like vibro-flotation and heavy and Yakubu (2000) discovered that the an addition of about
weight compaction of expansive soils. For example, Anifowose 6% of limestone ash waste to 94% of soil improved the soil
(1989) have shown that the engineering properties of soils sta- by reducing the plasticity index and increasing the strength
bilized with lime (calcium oxide) are better than those that (California bearing ratio and shear strength) and also that
are mechanically stabilized. This is because, while lime has double quantity of the limestone ash waste may be required
high amount of calcium oxide (CaO) which undergoes cation to achieve the same level of soil stabilization as would be
Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria achieved by use of conventional lime. Brooks (2009) also
*Corresponding author, email ogbonnaya.igwe@unn.edu.ng reported reduction in swelling ability and strength gain of

© W. S. Maney & Son Ltd 2016

Received 13 October 2015; accepted 23 November 2015
DOI 10.1080/19386362.2015.1125412 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX  NO. X 1
 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

expansive soil stabilized with rice husk ash, while Okagbue Analyses procedure
(2007) reported an improvement in the gradation, reduction
in the plasticity and MDD of an expansive soil stabilized The wood ash was subjected to X-ray fluorescence analysis to
with wood ash (wood combustion by-product). Authors like determine its chemical composition and to specific gravity test
Ene and Okagbue (2009) used pyroclastic dust, while Cokca following BS 1377 (1975) standard to determine its specific
(2001), Kumar and Sharma (2004), Ji-ru and Xing (2002) and gravity. The pH of the wood ash was determined following
Wong (2015) used fly ash (byproduct of coal power plant) to ASTM C25-93a (1993) standard while the chemical composi-
also improve the engineering properties of expansive soil and tion and physical properties of the lime have already been given
each got result quiet similar to the cases earlier stated. on the container of the lime by the producing industry (specialty
Some researchers also assessed the effect of two stabiliz- mineral incorporated, 2009). The soil sample was subjected
ers (conventional and unconventional stabilizer) and discov- to X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis using Shimadzu X-ray
ered that such combinations are better stabilizers than only diffractometer (XRD-6000) to determine its dominant miner-
one material. For example, Rao et al. (2012) used rice husk alogical composition. It was further subjected to sieve analy-
ash and lime to stabilize marine clay and discovered that on sis, Atterberg limits, specific gravity, free swell index (FSI),
the addition of 25% rice husk ash, the plasticity index (PI), linear shrinkage (LS), compaction, and unconfined compres-
optimum moisture content (OMC), and differential free swell sive strength (UCS) tests. The sieve analysis/Atterberg limits,
(DFS) decreased by 30, 18.5 and 72.8%, respectively while UCS, and FSI test were carried out according to ASTM D2487
the MDD) and California bearing ratio (CBR) increased by (2011), ASTM D2166/D2166M-13 (2013) and IS: 2720-XL
17 and 282%, respectively. Their work further revealed that (1985) standards, respectively, while the specific gravity and
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on addition of the two 25% rice husk ash and 9% lime, the PI, compaction test were performed following BS 1377 (1975)
OMC, and DFS decreased by 56.4, 42.6, and 77.2%, respec- standard.
tively while the MDD and CBR increased by 12 and 449%, About 940 g of the soil and 60 g of the wood ash (corre-
respectively. Other authors like Ismaiel (2006) and Malhotra sponding to 94% soil and 6% wood ash) were thoroughly mixed
and Naval (2013) combined lime and fly ash, while Amu et al. with a hand trowel and the wood ash–soil admixture divided
(2005) used cement and fly ash also got higher improvement into five portions. The five portions were subjected to Atterberg
in the geotechnical property of the soil than using only one limits, FSI, LS, compaction, and UCS tests, respectively, in
stabilizer. However, no author has yet combined a conventional order to determine the effect of wood ash on the geotechnical
stabilizer and wood ash irrespective that Kersten et al. (1998) properties of the soil sample. The mixing, dividing, and geo-
and Babayemi and Dauda (2009) have shown that enormous technical tests were repeated for three more times using 88%
wood ash is regularly generated and improperly disposed into soil and 12% wood ash; 82% soil and 18% wood ash; 76%
the environment from bakeries, restaurants, and homes of some soil and 24% wood ash. For each of the geotechnical tests, the
countries like Nigeria, and the environmental and health impli- soil–wood ash admixture that gave the best (optimum) geo-
cations associated with indiscriminate dumping of wood ash technical property was selected and mixed with lime (calcium
to the environment have been highlighted by Pitman (2006), oxide) in the ratio of 49:1 (i.e. 2% lime and 98% soil-wood ash
Risto et al. (2005), and Pasquini (2006). admixture). The wood ash-soil-lime admixture was also divided
This work assesses the effect of combined wood ash and into five portions and subjected to Atterberg limits, FSI, LS,
lime (CaO) on the engineering properties of soils and their best compaction, and UCS tests in order to ascertain if the addi-
admixture ratio in stabilizing expansive soil. tion of lime will improve or depreciate the tested geotechnical
properties of the soil. The mixing, dividing, and geotechnical
testing were repeated three more times using 4% lime and 96%
Study methodology soil–wood ash admixture; 6% lime and 94% soil–wood ash
admixture; and 8% lime and 92% soil–wood ash admixture.
Field observations and sampling
In each case, the geotechnical tests were done following the
The observations that led to this study were performed at Awgu earlier stated standards.
town of southeastern Nigeria where it was observed that most of The wood ash–soil and wood ash-soil-lime admixtures
the civil engineering structures like roads and residential build- were each further compacted at the OMC and specimen was
ings develop cracks shortly after their construction, and in some molded using the split mold of dimension 38 mm in diameter
cases lead to heaving or total failure of the structure. Reddish and 76 mm in height. The molded samples were each carefully
brown soil underlying the area that showed highest structural extruded and divided into four portions. Each of the 4 portions
damage was collected at 30 cm depth, air-dried for two weeks was cured moist (storing in polythene bags at 98% humidity
to attain complete drying, and preserved for analyses. and 25 °C) for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days, respectively. The cured
The lime (calcium oxide) used was obtained from an indus- samples were thereafter subjected to UCS test to determine
trially grade chemical store while the wood ash (the residue their possible strength gain/lose.
powder left after the combustion of wood) was obtained from
the furnace of a wood-fired oven of a bread bakery. Following
Okagbue (2007), the wood ash was left undisturbed for 1 h Results and discussion
to cool to ambient temperature after it was removed from the
The index properties and dominant mineralogy of the expansive
bakery furnace, passed through BS sieve of 63 μm to obtain
soil are shown in Table 1 and 2, respectively. The physical and
the size needed for ash clay reaction, and preserved in an air-
chemical properties of the wood ash are shown in Table 3, while
tight bag to eliminate its possible reaction with the atmospheric
those of lime are shown in Table 4.
carbon dioxide.

2 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX   NO. X

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

Table 1 Index properties and classification of the natural soil

Property Numerical value

Specific gravity (g/cm )
3
2.43
Liquid limit (%) 57.00
Plastic limit (%) 26.84
Linear shrinkage (%) 16.51
Plasticity index 30.17
Sand (%) 49.00
Silt (%) 36.00
Clay (%) 15.00
Soil classification (USCS) CH
Free swell ratio 1.23
Activity 2.00
Swell potential 8.80

Table 2 Dominant mineralogy of the expansive soil

Mineral present Percentage abundance

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Na-montmorillonite 6.21
Illites 33.01
Kaolinites 12.14
Sepiolite 18.69
Sanidine 8.97

Table 3 Chemical and physical properties of the wood ash

Compounds/property Concentration unit

P2O5 3.40%
SO3 1.82%
K2O 15.1%
CaO 71.58%
TiO2 0.46%
Cr2O3 0.02%
V2O5 0.091%
MnO 2.37%
Fe2O3 2.30%
CuO 0.070%
ZnO 0.17%
Ag2O 2.10%
BaO 0.40%
Re2O7 0.2%
LOI 20.01%
pH 12–13
Specific gravity 2.81

Table 4 Chemical and physical properties of the lime (after specialty minerals Inc., 2009)

Compounds Concentration unit

CaO 96%
Mg 0.8%
Fe2O3 0.1%
LOI 0.1%
pH 13–14
Percent fines (%) 98
Bulk density 1.12 g/cm3

From Table 1, the soil was classified as high plasticity inor- illite content shown in Table 2. Table 3 reveals that the wood
ganic clay (CH) with high expansivity. Based on findings done ash contains over 13 oxide compounds. Chemical composition
by Prakash and Sridhara (2004), the free swell ratio of the soil of wood ash varies greatly because there are many factors that
showed that the soil contains both swelling and non-swelling determine it such as the type and burn process (Campbell, 1990;
clays, which corresponds with its (soil) montmorillonite and Etiégni and Campbell, 1991; Hakkila, 1989; Someshwar, 1996),

International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX  NO. X 3

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

1a Variation in Atterberg limits, LS, and free swell index with varying percentages of wood ash
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1b Variation in Atterberg limits, LS, and free swell index with 18% wood ash and varying percentages of lime

the tree components (Hakkila, 1989; Waring and Schlesinger, For the case of Atterberg limits, the addition of 6% wood ash
1985), the species of tree (Ayininuola and Oyedemi, 2013; resulted in a 12% increase in liquid limit and 12.2% increase
Misra et al., 1993; Someshwar, 1996), and the burn tempera- in plastic limit, while an addition of 18% wood ash resulted
ture (Etiégni and Campbell, 1991; Misra et al., 1993). There in a 3% increase in liquid limit and 22.2% increase in plas-
is high percentage amount of CaO in this wood ash and this tic limit. This higher increase in plastic limit than in liquid
should make it a good additive for expansive soil stabiliza- limit resulted to the lowest decrease (19%) in the PI on addi-
tion because it will not only increase the alkalinity of the soil tion of 18% wood ash. The lowest decrease of 9.5% was
to promote solubility of silica and alumina (Okagbue, 2007), also recorded in the LS on addition of 18% wood ash. These
but also provides enough calcium ion for the cation exchange results agree with those of Bhuvaneshwari et al. (2005) and
reaction. Table 3 also revealed the presence of some heavy Ismaiel (2006) and Okagbue (2007) who used fly ash and
metals like Zn, Cr, and Cu, but their concentrations are within wood ash to stabilize expansive soil. Terzaghi and Peck (1996)
the permissible limit of most environmental regulatory bodies and Nalbantoglu and Gucbilmez (2001) explained that the
(Pitman, 2006). reduction in plasticity of the soil was due to the decrease in
the thickness of the double layer of the clay particles as a
result of cation exchange reaction which causes increase in the
Effect of the additives on the attraction force therefore leading to the flocculation of the par-
geotechnical properties of the soil ticles. Similarly, the lowest decrease (2.15%) in FSI was also
recorded on addition of 18% wood ash. However, the trend of
Atterberg limits, shrinkage limits, and free swell the FSI was more fluctuating than others (see Fig. 1(a)). This
index fluctuation is probably due to the variation in the mineralog-
Figure 1(a) shows the variation of Atterberg limits, LS, and ical composition of the natural soil as the reaction between
FSI of the expansive soil with varying quantities of wood ash. clay and lime depends on the cation exchange capacity of the

4 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX   NO. X

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

2a Variation in OMC with varying percentages of wood ash

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minerals present and the concentration of lime (Bell, 1996). Maximum dry density and optimum moisture
Another explanation is that the wood ash does not quickly content of the soil
produce enough calcium ions (Ca2+) that can favorably go
into cation exchange reaction since it (wood ash) contains The OMC and MDD with varying quantities of wood ash are
other high valence ions (like Fe3+, Cr3+, and Ti4+) that may shown in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b) while the variation in the OMC and
mask the effect of Ca2+. MDD at their optimum wood ash (18%) with varying quantities
Since the lowest PI, LS, and FSI were obtained on the of lime are shown in Fig. 2(c) and 2(d). The compaction curves
addition of 18% wood ash to 82% soil; this was taken as the of the soil, soil–wood ash, and soil-wood ash-lime admixtures
optimum wood ash–soil admixture (OWSA) and was added are shown in Fig. 2(e).
varying percentages of lime. Figure 1(b) shows the variation Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show that there is an initial sharp
in the Atterberg limits, LS, and FSI at their OWSA with var- decrease in the MDD from 1.49 to 1.46 mg/m3 and a corre-
ying percentage of lime. The figure shows that the addition sponding 4.5% increase in OMC upon addition of 6% wood
of 4% lime increases the liquid and plastic limits by 5 and ash to the natural soil. There was then gradual increase to the
2%, respectively but an addition of 8% lime decreases the highest MDD (1.48 mg/m3) and a corresponding decrease to
liquid and plastic limits by 11 and 21%, respectively. The the lowest OMC (3.5%) on the addition of 18% wood ash.
result is that the PI showed a 6 and 10% increase on addition The initial sharp decrease was also observed and explained by
of 4 and 8% lime, respectively. Similar progressive increase Okagbue and Yakubu (2000) to have been caused by floccu-
shown by PI is also shown by the LS (see Fig. 1(b)). The lation and agglomeration of the clay particles but their reason
addition of 4 and 8% lime to the OWSA showed a 1.5 and for the subsequent gradual drop did not agree with the result
3.5% increase in the LS. Ismaiel (2006) also gave similar obtained in the present work. An explanation for the gradual
report on stabilization of expansive soils with the combined drop in the MDD may be that the lime content in the 6% wood
effect of fly ash and lime. It implies that the addition of lime ash added was enough only for the initial flocculation and
to the OWSA does not significantly improve the PI and LS agglomeration reaction and thus an increase in the quantity of
of the soil. wood ash resulted in a slower reaction rate. Generally, as the
Figure 1(b) however reveals that an addition of 4 and 6% amount of wood ash increases, the OMC and MDD fluctuate
lime to the OWSA causes a further 18.66 and 18.44% decrease in which case none of the wood ash-soil OMC decreased up
in the FSI (i.e. relative to that of OWSA), respectively. It is to that of the natural soil and none of the wood ash-soil MDD
expected that the addition of 5% lime to the OWSA shall result increased up to that of the natural soil.
to the lowest decrease (19.13%) in the FSI. These results agree Figures 2(c) and 2(d) reveal a general progressive increase
with those of Buhler and Cerato (2007), Malhotra and Naval in OMC and decrease in MDD as lime is added to the OWSA.
(2013) in using fly ash and lime to stabilize soil and also that The OMC increased by 12.5% while the MDD decreased by
of Rao et al. (2012) in using rice husk ash and lime to stabilize 0.15 mg/m3 upon addition of 8% lime to the OWSA. Okagbue
soil. The reduction in the swell potential of the natural soil was (2007) explained that the decrease in the MDD is due to floc-
achieved by the initial reaction of lime which releases calcium culation and agglomeration of the clay particles (caused by
ion (Ca2+) that migrates to the surface of the clay particles dis- cation exchange reaction) resulting in increase in void vol-
placing water and other ions thereby reducing the swell ten- ume consequential reduction in the weight–volume ratio. The
dency. A process regarded as flocculation and agglomeration increase in the OMC is because of the hydration of quick lime
and it generally occurs in a matter of hours, though can sub- (reaction of quick lime and water to form calcium hydroxide).
stantially improve with time of curing and pozzolanic reaction An exothermic reaction that normally leads to the drying of
(Dempsey and Thompson, 1968; National Lime Association, soil and thus requires more water for the subsequent reaction,
2004). which is disassociation of the calcium hydroxide into Ca2+

International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX  NO. X 5

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

2b Variation in MDD with varying percentages of wood ash

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2c Variation of OMC with 18% wood ash and varying percentages of lime

2d Variation in MDD with 18% wood ash and varying percentages of lime

and OH- ions (National Lime Association, 2004; Okagbue and Interestingly, the wood ash-lime-soil admixture mois-
Yakubu, 2000). ture–density curves (see Fig. 2(e)) showed a more flattened

6 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX   NO. X

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils
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2e Compaction curves of the natural soil and at varying proportions of additives

3a Variation in UCS with varying percentages of wood ash

compaction curve than that of wood ash–soil admixture. This natural soil, again this soil mixed with 18% wood ash taken as
was also observed by Sweeney et al. (1988) who explained that the OWSA was mixed with varying quantities of lime as shown
the flattening is due to the short-term pre-compaction cemen- in Fig. 3(b). The result revealed that there was a significant
tation reactions caused by the lime. This cementation mostly increase in the UCS. The UCS increased by 206.4 kpa upon
concentrates between the inter-clay particles edges/faces offer- adding 2% lime to the OWSA and further increased by 181 kpa
ing greater resistance to compaction. Nicholson et al. (1994) upon the addition of 4% lime to the OWSA and decreased
and Ismaiel (2006) further explained that the flattening of com- upon the addition of more lime. Therefore, 4% lime and 96%
paction curves makes it easier to achieve the required density OWSA was taken as the optimum wood ash-soil-lime admix-
over a wider range of moisture contents thereby conserving ture. However, Fig. 3(b) indicates that the highest UCS shall be
time, effort/energy, and hence reduction in the cost of operation. attained (about 400 kpa total increase) on the addition of about
4.5% lime to the optimum wood ash–soil. The OWSA (18%
wood ash content) and optimum wood ash-soil-lime admix-
Unconfined compressive strength and curing ture (4% lime content) were selected and each cured for 7, 14,
21, and 28 days with the aim of determining the strength gain
From Fig. 3(a) it can be seen that, as in the case of OMC and
of the admixtures with time, bearing in mind that pozzolanic
MDD, the UCS of the soil did not show significant increase
reaction is time dependent (Show et al., 2003), and this reaction
or decrease as wood ash is progressively added to it. The UCS
as shown below produces calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and
increased by only 7 kpa on the addition of 18% wood ash to the
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH):
soil. In order to determine if the increase in calcium oxide con-
tent of the wood ash will cause increase in strength value of the Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + SiO2 (Clay Silica) → CSH

International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX  NO. X 7

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

3b Variation in UCS with 18% wood ash and varying percentages of lime
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4a Effect of curing on the UCS

4b Stress–stain relationship of the natural soil, optimum wood ash admixture uncured and 28 days cured, and optimum lime–
wood ash admixture uncured and 28 days cured

8 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering   2016  VOL. XX   NO. X

 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

Table 5 Summary of the experiments and the results

S/No Admixture Consistency Limits Proctor com- Free Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)
paction test Swell
Index
LL (%) PL (%) LS (%) PI (%) MDD OMC (%) Curing period (days)
(mg/ (%)
m3) 0 7 14 21 28
1 Soil sample 57 26.84 16.51 30.17 1.49 19 23.08 193.7
only (S)
2 S + 6% W 69 39 16 30 1.46 25.5 28.08 167.2
3 S + 12% W 60 49 11 11 1.47 21.5 26.32 170.5
4 S + 18% W 60 49 7.01 11 1.48 20 20.93 200.6 1050 1380 1490 1590
5 S + 24% W 61 49 7.5 12 1.47 21 26.32 195.1
Sample S + 18 % W = OWSA
6 OWSA + 2% 65 46 10.3 19 1.37 31 6.67 407
L
7 OWSA + 4% 65 47 9 18 1.38 30.5 2.27 588 1250 1690 2100 2500
L
8 OWSA + 6% 49 30 10.5 19 1.37 32 2.5 585
L
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9 OWSA + 8% 49 28 11.04 21 1.33 32.5 6.38 507

L
Note: Where, W = wood ash, OWSA = optimum wood ash-soil admixture

seven days before significant strength gain could be observed.

Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + Al2 O3 (Clay Alumina) → CAH However, pozzolanic reaction has been observed to last for
The calcium silicate gel formed initially coats and binds lumps months even years as long as the pH of the soil remains above
of clay together which, then in time, crystallizes to form an 10 (Biczysko, 1996; Ismaiel, 2006).
interlocking structure which binds the soil particles together
thus, strength of the soils increases (Hadi et al., 2008; Terrel
et al., 1979). Conclusion
Comparing Figs. 3(a) and 3(b) with 4(a), it can be seen that Table 5 shows the summary of the experiments and the results
the lower strength gained by the wood ash–soil admixture is due obtained, and the following conclusions were drawn from this
to the calcium oxide in the wood ash is not readily available for work:
the pozzolanic reaction which is time dependent, noting that the (1) The addition of wood ash into the studied expansive
natural soil contains appreciable amount of Na-montmorillonite soil reduced the PI and LS of the soil and thus generally
(see Table 2) and excessive quantities of exchangeable sodium improved the workability of the soil. The mixing of 18%
affects the lime reactivity of soil (Mallela et al., 2004), therefore wood ash and 82% soil (regarded as the OWSA) gave
at this point the wood ash has no pozzolanic value to the mix the least reduction in PI (decreased by 19.00%) and LS
but only as a filler (Abdullahi, 2006). This could be justified (decreased by 9.50%) of the soil. Addition of lime to
by the increase in the strength value of the wood ash-soil-lime the OWSA did not show any significant improvement
admixture as compared with the one obtained with the optimum in the PI and LS.
wood ash admixture alone, that is from 200.6 kPa to 407 kPa (2) The OWSA resulted in only 2.15% decrease in FSI of
on addition of 2% lime which subsequently increases as more the soil, while the addition of 4% lime to the OWSA
lime is added, and also the surge up of the strength value after resulted in a further 18.66% decrease in the FSI.
7 days of curing from 200.6 kPa before curing to 1050 kPa and (3) Addition of wood as to the soil has no significant effect
to 1590 kPa after 28 days of curing, and at this point the wood on its (soil) OMC and MDD but the addition of lime to
ash must have produced enough lime for Pozzolanic reaction. the OWSA resulted to a progressive increase in OMC
This strength gain was also revealed in the stress–strain and progressive reduction in the MDD. Upon addition of
curves of the natural soil, the optimum admixtures, and 28 days 8% lime to the OWSA, the OMC increased by 12.50%
cured optimum admixtures as shown in Fig. 4(b). The stress– while the MDD decreased by 0.15mgm3. Similarly,
strain curves of the uncured samples showing plastic deforma- the addition of wood ash to the soil has no immediate
tions compared to that of the cured samples that showed brittle significant effect on its UCS while the addition of 4%
deformations. These behaviors are likely due to hardening of lime to the OWSA resulted to 387.4 kpa increase in the
the cured clay particles with time and agree with works of UCS of the soil. There is evidence that it will attain a
Popescu et al. (1997) and Nasrizer et al. (2011). Curing of the maximum increase (by 400 kpa) on the addition of 4.5%
samples in this work did not only serve the purpose of deter- lime to the OWSA.
mining the durability of the wood ash–-lime-stabilized soil, but (4) The strength of both wood ash–soil and wood ash-soil-
also revealed that the calcium oxide content in the wood ash lime admixtures increases with curing duration. After
is not readily available or not adequate enough for pozzolanic 28 days curing at 98% humidity and a temperature of
reaction within hours but has to last for a period of at least 25 °C, UCS of the wood ash–soil admixture increased

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 Emeh and Igwe The combined effect of wood ash and lime on the engineering properties of expansive soils

by 1389 kpa while that of wood ash-soil-lime admixture Brooks, R. M. 2009. Soil stabilization with fly ash and rice husk ash, Int. J. Res.
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Acknowledgment Hakkila, P. 1989. Utilisation of Residual Forest Biomass, Springer series in
Wood Science – Springer Verlag, Berlin, 568 p.
Authors are grateful to Mr Ojo Johnson, and Mr Ganiyu of Holtz, W. G. 1983. The influence of vegetation on the swelling and shrinking of
National Steel Raw Materials Exploration Agency, Kaduna, for clays in the United States of America, Géotechnique, 33, 159–163.
providing geotechnical services. They are also grateful to the IS: 2720-XL. 1985. Indian standard methods for test of soils: determination of
free swell index of soil. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
management of Ife-best bakeries for providing the wood ash Ismaiel, H. A. H. 2006. Treatment and improvement of the geotechnical
used in this work and to Chinenye for her financial supports. properties of different soft fine grained soils using chemical stabilization,
PhD thesis, Institute of Geology, Martin Luther Halle-Wittenberg University,
Germany.
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