Erbil Polytechnic University

Erbil technical health college

MLT Department
2st Stage

Physiology Report

Hormone
Prepared by: Supervised by:
Muhammad Othman Assist Prof. Dr.Twana Ahmad
Sina Nazem
Mustafa Yousf

2021-2022

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 Content

1 Introduction to endocrine system 3-4

2 Introduction to hormone 5

3 Types of hormone 6

4 Steroid hormones. 7

5 Peptide hormones 8

6 Function of hormone 9

7 Hormone regulation 10

8 Hormone signaling 11

9 Hormonal disease 12-13

10 Example 14

11 Conclusion 15

12 Reference 16

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 Introduction to endocrine system
The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release
different hormones that target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your
body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive organs. Some glands are tiny,
about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is
about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce hormones include:

Hypothalamus:
This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses
information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including
the pituitary gland, to produce hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes
in your body, including your mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual
function.

Pituitary:
This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones
that control several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and
testicles. The pituitary gland is in charge of many different functions, including how
your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.

Thyroid:
Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for
your metabolism (how your body uses energy).

Parathyroid:
These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of
calcium in your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you
need the right amount of calcium.

Adrenal:
You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism,
blood pressure, sexual development and response to stress.

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Pineal:
This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you
to feel sleepy.

Pancreas:
Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your
digestive system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar
in your blood.

Ovaries:
In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and
testosterone. Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.

Testes:
In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This
hormone affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.

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 Introduction to hormone
hormone, organic substance secreted by plants and animals that functions in the
regulation of physiological activities and in maintaining homeostasis. Hormones carry
out their functions by evoking responses from specific organs or tissues that are adapted
to react to minute quantities of them. The classical view of hormones is that they are
transmitted to their targets in the bloodstream after discharge from the glands that
secrete them. This mode of discharge (directly into the bloodstream) is called endocrine
secretion. The meaning of the term hormone has been extended beyond the original
definition of a blood-borne secretion, however, to include similar regulatory substances
that are distributed by diffusion across cell membranes instead of by a blood system.
Hormones regulate various biological activities including growth, development,
reproduction, energy use and storage, and water and electrolyte balance. They are
molecules that act as chemical messengers in the body's endocrine system. Hormones
are produced by certain organs and glands and are secreted into the blood or other
bodily fluids. Most hormones are carried by the circulatory system to different areas,
where they influence specific cells and organs.

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 Types of Hormones
Hormones can be classified into two main types:
1. Peptide hormones

2. Steroid hormones.

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 Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and able to pass through the cell membrane to enter
a cell. Steroid hormones bind to receptor cells in the cytoplasm, and the receptor-bound
steroid hormones are transported into the nucleus. Then, the steroid hormone-receptor
complex binds to another specific receptor on the chromatin within the nucleus. The
complex calls for the production of certain RNA molecules called messenger RNA
(mRNA) molecules, which code for the production of proteins.

Steroid hormones cause certain genes to be expressed or suppressed by influencing

gene transcription within a cell. Sex hormones (androgens, estrogens, and
progesterone), produced by male and female gonads, are examples of steroid hormones.

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 Peptide Hormones
These protein hormones are composed of amino acids. Peptide hormones are water-
soluble and are unable to pass through a cell membrane. Cell membranes contain a
phospholipid bilayer that prevents fat-insoluble molecules from diffusing into the cell.

Peptide hormones must bind to receptors on the cell's surface, causing changes within
the cell by affecting enzymes within the cell's cytoplasm. This binding by the hormone
initiates the production of a second messenger molecule inside the cell, which carries
the chemical signal within the cell.
Human growth hormone is an example of a peptide hormone.

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 Function of hormone
Your endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of hormones in your blood.
Hormones deliver their messages by locking into the cells they target so they can relay
the message.

The pituitary gland senses when your hormone levels rise, and tells other glands to stop
producing and releasing hormones. When hormone levels dip below a certain point, the
pituitary gland can instruct other glands to produce and release more. This process,
called homeostasis, works similarly to the thermostat in your house. Hormones affect
nearly every process in your body, including:

• Metabolism (the way you break down food and get energy from nutrients).
• Growth and development.
• Emotions and mood.
• Fertility and sexual function.
• Sleep.
• Blood pressure.
• Sometimes glands produce too
much or not enough of a
hormone.
This imbalance can cause health
problems, such as weight gain,
high blood pressure and changes
in sleep, mood and behavior.
Many things can affect how your
body creates and releases
hormones. Illness, stress and
certain medications can cause a
hormone imbalance.

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 Hormone regulation
Hormones may be regulated by other hormones, by glands and organs, and by a
negative feedback mechanism. Hormones that regulate the release of other hormones
are called tropic hormones. The majority of tropic hormones are secreted by the anterior
pituitary in the brain. The hypothalamus and thyroid gland also secrete tropic hormones.
The hypothalamus produces the tropic hormone thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH),
which stimulates the pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH is a
tropic hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and secrete more thyroid
hormones.

Organs and glands also aid in hormonal regulation by monitoring blood content. For
example, the pancreas monitors glucose concentrations in the blood. If glucose levels
are too low, the pancreas will secrete the hormone glucagon to raise glucose levels. If
glucose levels are too high, the pancreas secretes insulin to lower glucose levels.

In negative feedback regulation, the initial stimulus is reduced by the response it

provokes. The response eliminates the initial stimulus and the pathway is halted.
Negative feedback is demonstrated in the regulation of red blood cell production or
erythropoiesis. The kidneys monitor oxygen levels in the blood. When oxygen levels
are too low, the kidneys produce and release a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO).
EPO stimulates red bone marrow to produce red blood cells. As blood oxygen levels
return to normal, the kidneys slow the release of EPO, resulting in decreased
erythropoiesis.

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 Hormone signaling
Hormones that are circulated in the blood come in contact with a number of cells.
However, they influence only target cells, which have receptors for each specific
hormone. Target cell receptors can be located on the surface of the cell membrane or
inside of the cell. When a hormone binds to a receptor, it causes changes within the cell
that influence cellular function.

This type of hormone signaling is described as endocrine signaling because the

hormones influence target cells over a long distance from where they are secreted. For
example, the pituitary gland near the brain secretes growth hormones affecting
widespread areas of the body. Not only can hormones affect distant cells, but they can
also influence neighboring cells. Hormones act on local cells by being secreted into the
interstitial fluid that surrounds cells. These hormones then diffuse to nearby target cells.
This type of signaling is called paracrine signaling. These travel a much shorter distance
between where they're secreted and where they target.
In autocrine signaling, hormones don't travel to other cells but cause changes in the very
cell that releases them.

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 Hormonal diseases
Your endocrine system is a group of glands that secrete hormones into the blood. These
hormones travel to other organs and tissues to regulate your body’s functions. Your
endocrine system influences your growth and development, mood, sexual function,
reproduction, and metabolism. When something goes wrong with your endocrine
system, your whole body can suffer.

The most common hormonal diseases are:

1. Diabetes

Diabetes is the most common endocrine disorder in the United States. More than 29
million Americans have diabetes, but one-third are unaware they have it. The pancreas
is the endocrine gland responsible for making the hormone insulin. Insulin helps your
body’s cells take in glucose for energy. When you have diabetes, your pancreas doesn’t
make enough insulin. As a result, glucose stays in your blood instead of helping your
cells.

2. Thyroid Disorders

Thyroid disorders follow closely behind diabetes in the United States. About 20 million
Americans have some type of thyroid disorder. Your thyroid gland makes hormones
that tell your body’s systems how fast work. When you have too much thyroid hormone,
your systems work in overdrive. When you have too little, your body becomes sluggish.
Women are more likely than men to suffer from thyroid disorders.
And hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone levels) is more common
than hyperthyroidism (high thyroid hormone levels).

3. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects approximately five million women in the
United States. Women with PCOS can have enlarged ovaries containing many small
cysts. This interferes with regular menstruation and fertility. PCOS can also cause high
levels of androgens (male hormones). Excess androgens can bring about hair
growth, weight gain, and acne. Like other endocrine disorders, treatment involves
balancing hormones.

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4. Low Testosterone

Hypogonadism is the medical term for low testosterone. It’s difficult to determine
exactly how many men have low testosterone based on studies published so far. Most
estimates put it in the millions, with older men being more likely to have it. Men with
low testosterone suffer from decreased sexual desire, erectile dysfunction, shrinking
testes, and hair loss. They may also have less energy, depression, muscle weakness, and
sleep problems.

5. Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is thinning of the bones and loss of bone mass. Women are at higher risk
than men. The risk increases with age, as estrogen levels decline. But other endocrine
disorders can contribute to osteoporosis. This includes high levels of thyroid hormone,
parathyroid hormone, and cortisol. These conditions disrupt the normal balance of bone
rebuilding and remodeling. In men, low testosterone levels can increase the likelihood
of developing osteoporosis.

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 Example

Pituitary lobe Associated hormones Effect

Promotes growth of body

Anterior Growth hormone (GH)
tissues

Promotes milk production

Anterior Prolactin (PRL)
from mammary glands

Thyroid-stimulating Stimulates thyroid hormone

Anterior
hormone (TSH) release from thyroid

Adrenocorticotropic Stimulates hormone release

Anterior
hormone (ACTH) by adrenal cortex

Follicle-stimulating Stimulates gamete

Anterior
hormone (FSH) production in gonads

Stimulates androgen
Anterior Luteinizing hormone (LH)
production by gonads

Antidiuretic hormone Stimulates water

Posterior
(ADH) reabsorption by kidneys
Stimulates uterine
Posterior Oxytocin contractions during
childbirth
Intermediate Melanocyte-stimulating Stimulates melanin
zone hormone formation in melanocytes

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 Conclusion
• This article has provided a general overview of the nature of hormones, along with
the major endocrine glands and their importance in regulating and coordinating vital
bodily functions.

• The endocrine system comprises glands and tissues that secrete hormones to
regulate and coordinate vital functions in the body.

• Endocrine glands differ from exocrine glands by releasing their secretions directly
into the bloodstream, rather than a central duct.

• Endocrine glands’ highly vascular nature allows variables in the blood to be

monitored continuously and appropriate hormones to be rapidly released into the
circulation.

• Hormones exert their physiological effects by binding to specific receptors

associated with their target cells.

• Hormones regulate physiological processes and are key to maintaining

homoeostatic balance in the body.

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 Reference
https://www.thoughtco.com/hormones-373559
https://www.news-medical.net/amp/health/What-are-
Hormones.aspx
https://www.britannica.com/science/hormone
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Peptide-hormones-in-
endocrine-systems_fig2_5666539
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21201-endocrine-
system
https://www.healthgrades.com/right-care/endocrinology-and-
metabolism/5-most-common-endocrine-disorders
https://www.thoughtco.com/how-steroid-hormones-work-
373393
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/nemcc-ap/chapter/the-
pituitary-gland-and-hypothalamus/

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