Name :

Mohsin Hussain
Roll No :
200953
Class :
Summer Session
Assignment Topic :
Mechanism Action
of Hormone, Physiological Roles of
Various Hormones

We know the nervous system and the endocrine system are the two controlling
systems of the body. The endocrine system controls the body with the help of
hormones they release. These hormones bind with specific receptors on target cells
which further proceed to trigger intracellular signals either by altering membrane
permeability, acting through second messenger system or activating specific genes
to form new proteins.

Hormone Action
A Hormone is a tiny chemical messenger, travelling along with the bloodstream. It
exists to maintain internal balance or in other words, keeps the human body in a
state of homeostasis.

This is an extremely rudimentary definition of hormones, as in reality there are

numerous hormones that perform an immense number of functions for various
purposes.

Starting with receptors, they are specific for every hormone. Their sensitivity and
responsiveness are dependent on both, the number of receptors and its affinity.
Also, the site of the receptor might be:

Present in or on the surface of the cell membrane. G. Protein or peptide hormones

and catecholamine.

In the cytoplasm. E.g. steroid hormones; Or

In the cell nucleus. E.g. thyroxine.

Furthermore, hormones can be divided into groups on the basis of their chemical
nature:

Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones.

Steroids

Iodothyronines (thyroid hormone).

Amino acid derivatives.

The hormones that interact with membrane-bound receptors generally don’t enter
target cells, rather generate second messengers that proceed to regulate cellular
metabolism.

On the other hand, hormones which interact with intracellular receptors mostly
regulate gene expression or chromosome function by the interaction of hormone
receptor complex with the genome. The sum total of all the biochemical actions
results in physiological and developmental effects.

Mechanism of Hormone Action

The mechanism of hormone action is grouped into two classes:

 Fixed membrane receptor mechanism

 Mobile receptor mechanism
Fixed Membrane Receptor Mechanism

This type of mechanism is shown by the water-soluble hormones that are amines or
proteins in composition such as the growth hormone, oxytocin, ADH, etc.

These hormones can’t pass through the lipid membrane. They have their target
receptor on the cell membrane to which the hormone binds.

When the hormone binds on the specific target receptor, the enzyme adenyl cyclase
in the cell membrane is activated. This helps in the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).

cAMP acts as the secondary messenger. It diffuses through the cell membrane and
activates several enzymatic reactions to cause biochemical changes.

The target cell responds to these changes and cAMP is deactivated by the enzyme
phosphodiesterase.

Mobile Receptor Mechanism

This type of mechanism is shown by lipid soluble hormones such as fatty acids and
steroids that can easily pass through the plasma membrane.

They possess intracellular receptors. The hormones bind to the target receptor that
activates the enzymatic activity of the cell to bring about biochemical changes.

Transcription of DNA is initiated by the hormone-receptor complex.

The mRNA is translated into protein. This protein causes biochemical changes inside
the cell.

Hormones as Regulators
Hormones help in maintaining the internal environment of the body. When the secretion of
hormones is under the control of other hormones, it is known as feedback control. It can be of two
types:

Positive Feedback Control: In this process, the end products of action cause more of the action to
occur in a feedback loop. For eg., blood clotting, menstrual cycle.

Negative Feedback Control: In this type of regulation the end product of a process reduces the
stimulus of that same process. For eg., temperature regulation, regulation of blood sugar.
Hormones as Messengers
The neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus secrete hormones known as neurohormones into the
blood. These neurohormones are carried to the pituitary gland and stimulate it to release various
hormones. Hence they are also known as “releasing factors”

Which body tissues make hormones?

Specialized glands that make up your endocrine system make and release most of the hormones in
your body. A gland is an organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive
juices, sweat or tears. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into your bloodstream.

Your endocrine system consists of the following glands:

 Hypothalamus.
  Pituitary gland.
 Pineal gland.
 Thyroid.
 Parathyroid glands.
 Adrenal glands.
 Pancreas.
 Ovaries.
 Testes.

But not all organs and tissues that release hormones or hormone-like substances are considered part
of the endocrine system. Other body tissues that release hormones include:

 Adipose tissue (fat tissue).

 Kidneys.
 Liver.
 Gut (gastrointestinal tract).
 Placenta.
 Hypothalamus

Your hypothalamus is a small region of your brain that connects to your pituitary gland through the
pituitary stalk. It releases several hormones that control your pituitary gland.

Your hypothalamus makes the following hormones:

 Corticotrophin-releasing hormone.
 Dopamine.
 Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone.
 Growth hormone-releasing hormone.
 Oxytocin (your hypothalamus makes oxytocin, but your pituitary gland stores and releases
it).
 Somatostatin.
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone.
Pituitary gland
Your pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland at the base of your brain, behind the bridge of your nose and
directly below your hypothalamus. It consists of two lobes: the posterior lobe and the anterior lobe.
Your pituitary gland releases several hormones — many of which control the functions of other
endocrine glands.

The anterior pituitary makes and releases the following six hormones:

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin).

 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
 Growth hormone (GH).
 Luteinizing hormone (LH).
 Prolactin.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
 The posterior pituitary releases the following hormones:
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin).
 Oxytocin.

Pineal gland
Your pineal gland is a tiny gland in your brain that’s located beneath the back part of the corpus
callosum (nerve fibers that connect the two parts of your brain). It releases the hormone melatonin,
which helps control your sleep-wake cycle.
Thyroid gland
Your thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located at the front of your neck under your skin. Your
thyroid’s main job is to control the speed of your metabolism (metabolic rate), which is the process
of how your body transforms the food you consume into energy.

Your thyroid releases the following hormones:

 Thyroxine (T4).
 Triiodothyronine (T3).
 Reverse triiodothyronine (RT3).
 Calcitonin.
 Thyroxine and triiodothyronine are often collectively called “thyroid hormone.”

Parathyroid glands
Most people have four pea-sized parathyroid glands located behind their thyroid gland (the butterfly-
shaped gland in your neck). Sometimes, your parathyroid glands are located along your esophagus or
in your chest. These are known as ectopic (in an abnormal place) parathyroid glands.

The main job of your parathyroid glands is to release parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is
responsible for the calcium balance in your blood and bone health.

Adrenal glands
Your adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangle-shaped glands that are
located on top of each of your two kidneys.

Your adrenal glands make the following hormones:

 Cortisol.
 Aldosterone.
 DHEA and androgens.
 Adrenaline (epinephrine).
 Noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Pancreas
Your pancreas is an organ in the back of your abdomen (belly). It’s part of your digestive system and
endocrine system.

The islet cells (endocrine cells) in your pancreas make the following hormones:

 Insulin.
 Glucagon.

Ovaries
People assigned female at birth (AFAB) have two ovaries — each located on both sides of their uterus
below the opening of the fallopian tubes. In addition to containing the egg cells necessary for
reproduction, the ovaries produce the following hormones:

 Estrogen.
 Progesterone.
 Testosterone.

Testes
People assigned male at birth (AMAB) have two testes that hang in a pouch outside of their body
below their penis. The testes are part of the male reproductive system and produce sperm and the
hormone testosterone.

Adipose tissue (fat tissue)

Adipose tissue is commonly known as body fat. It’s located all over your body, including under your
skin, around internal organs, between muscles, in bone marrow and breast tissue.

Adipose tissue makes and releases the following hormones:

 Leptin.
 Adiponectin.
 Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1.
 Estrogen.
 Angiotensin.

Kidneys
Your kidneys are two bean-shaped organs that filter your blood. They’re part of your urinary system,
but they also produce hormones, including:

 Erythropoietin.
 Renin.
 The active form of vitamin D (vitamin D isn’t actually a vitamin — it’s a prohormone, which is
a substance that your body converts into a hormone).

Liver
Your liver is an essential organ and gland, performing hundreds of functions necessary to sustain life.
It’s considered part of your digestive system, but also produces hormones, including:

 Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

 Angiotensinogen.

Gut (gastrointestinal tract)

Your gut (gastrointestinal tract) is the long, connected tube that starts at your mouth and ends at
your anus. It’s responsible for digestion. Scientists are currently studying the hormones that your gut
makes and their effects. These hormones include:
  Ghrelin.
 Somatostatin.
 Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1).

Placenta
The placenta is a temporary organ that develops in your uterus during pregnancy. It provides oxygen
and nutrients to the developing fetus. The placenta produces the hormones estrogen and
progesterone to maintain the pregnancy.

What conditions are caused by hormone issues?

Dozens of medical conditions are caused by hormone issues. For most hormones, having too much or
too little of them causes symptoms and issues with your health. These imbalances often require
treatment. Some of the most common hormone-related conditions include:
  Diabetes, including Type 2 diabetes, Type 1 diabetes and gestational diabetes.
 Thyroid disease, including hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone levels) and hyperthyroidism
(high thyroid hormone levels).
 Irregular menstruation (periods), caused by polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), amenorrhea
and anovulation.
 Female infertility.
 Male infertility — more specifically, low testosterone levels (hypogonadism).
 Obesity.

------‐-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE END