ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR

UNIT 01
Fundamentals of OB
01.Define and explain scope and importance of OB ?
ANS-Everything you need to know about organisational
behaviour. The field of organisational behaviour deals with
human behaviour in organisation.
It is the multidisciplinary field that seeks knowledge of behaviour
in organisational settings by objective based on studying
individual, group and organizational processes.
The role and field of organisation behaviour is not only
concerned with a particular organisation. The concepts and
approaches of organisation behaviour are also more concerned
with the society.
According to L. M. Prasad, “Organisational behaviour can be
defined as the study and application of knowledge about human
behaviour related to other elements of an organisation such as
structure, technology and social systems.”
In words of K Aswathappa , “OB is the study of human
behaviour in organisational setting, of the interface between
human behaviour and organisation and of the organisation itself.
SCOPE:-

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The scope of organizational behaviour is vast and dynamic.
Thus, understanding this concept is important for the better
functioning of an organization.
• Individual Behaviour
• Group Behaviour
• External Environment
• Organizational Structure
• Organizational Culture
• Decision Making
• Change Management
• Leadership and Power
Let’s study some of these in detail below.
Individual Behaviour
This area helps understand how an individual's characteristics,
like personality, attitude, perception, motivation and incentives,
interests, learning and development, attitudes and job
satisfaction, etc., can impact a workplace. Motivation theories,
emotional intelligence, and job satisfaction are some concepts
that fall under this category. Various one-to-one interaction
sessions are conducted to understand the individual behaviour.
Also, emphasis is being laid on Importance of Adult Education.

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Group Behaviour
This focuses on how people behave in groups and teams and how
this impacts the work culture of an organization. It deals with
topics like group dynamics, communication, leadership styles,
and decision-making processes. It helps people in fostering
collaboration and managing conflicts. This is also known as
group conformity. Further, it involves the study of the following
aspects of a group:
• The patterns of communication
• Decision-making among group members
• Distribution of leadership roles
• Cohesiveness
• Techniques used during conflict resolution
External Environment
External environments are also a huge part of Organizational
Behaviour, impacting how an organization as a whole interacts
when stimulated by external factors. Some of the important
external factors that influence individual interactions include the
following:
• Economic conditions
• Social trends and demographic changes
• Market conditions and competition
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 • Technological developments
• Policy changes
Organizational Structure
Organizational structure is a driving force behind any
organizational behaviour. Some factors of organizational
structure that impact employee behaviours are:
• Distribution of leadership and hierarchy
• Type of organizational structure
• Workflow and coordination
• Change management and adaptability
• Clarity of roles and responsibilities

Some of the importance of Organizational Behavior (OB) in any

type of organizations is as follows:

1. Organizational Behavior helps in understanding

Organization and Employees in a better way which
supports Organizational behavior management.
2. Organizational Behavior helps in motivating
employees.

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 3. Organizational Behavior helps in improving Industrial
/ Labor relations.
4. Organizational Behavior helps in predicting and
controlling Human Behavior.
5. Organizational Behavior helps in the effective
utilization of Human Resources.

1. Organizational Behavior Management

The study of OB helps to understand the organization and people
in a better way. OB is important it helps to develop a friendly
relationship between organization and employees creating a
proper working environment in an organization. This helps in
employee commitment as well as maintains Organizational
Citizenship Behavior.
Studying OB provides a better understanding of the organization
structure and organization culture as well which further supports
organizational behavior management.

2. OB helps in motivating employees

The importance of organizational behavior (OB) cannot be
neglected because studying Organizational Behavior helps
managers to motivate the employees bringing good organizational
performance automatically leading to job satisfaction. This helps

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to achieve the organizational goals properly as we cannot neglect
the importance of employee behavior in an organization

3. Industrial or Labour relations can be improved with the

help of OB
Studying Organizational Behavior(OB) helps to improve
industrial/labor relations. Organizational Behavior Management
helps in understanding the root cause of the problem, predict its
future course of action and control its negative consequences.
As managers are aware of the positive and negative consequences
of the behavior, it enables managers to maintain friendly relations
with their employees which creates peace and harmony in the
organization.

4. Organizational Behavior helps in predicting and controlling

Human Behavior
Studying OB helps in the study of human behavior as well as
supports in controlling it. It is the one of the most important
reasons for studying Organizational Behavior. Organizational
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behavior: improving performance and commitment in the
workplace. Organizational behavior and human decision processes
are to some extent related to each other. Knowledge of
Organizational Behavior research is very much important for the
management students who are going to have a career as a
successful manager.

5. Human resources can effectively be utilized with the help of

OB
Studying Organizational Behavior (OB) helps in the effective
utilization of Human Resources. Knowledge of and nature
of Organisational Behaviour helps managers to manage people’s
behavior and the organization effectively.
Likewise, it enables managers to inspire and motivate employees
toward higher productivity and better results as the manager is
able to analyze and understand the nature and behavior of his
employees.

Q2. How is OB related with individual and groups?

ANS - Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human
behavior in organizational settings, how individuals interact
within groups, and how organizations function as a whole. It has a
strong relationship with both individuals and groups in the
following ways:

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1. Relationship with Individuals
OB examines how personal characteristics and individual
behavior influence work outcomes.
• Personality and Attitudes: OB explores how individual traits
like personality, values, and emotions affect workplace
performance and relationships.
• Perception and Motivation: It investigates how people
perceive their roles and are motivated to perform tasks.
Theories like Maslow’s hierarchy and Herzberg’s two-factor
model help understand motivation.
• Learning and Development: OB studies how individuals
acquire skills, adapt to organizational changes, and grow
professionally.
• Decision-Making: It analyzes how individuals make
decisions within organizations, including biases and problem-
solving approaches.

2. Relationship with Groups

Groups are central to organizational life, and OB investigates their
dynamics and effects on individual and organizational
performance.
• Group Formation and Cohesion: OB examines why and
how groups form, their roles, norms, and the factors that
strengthen or weaken group cohesion.
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 • Communication: Effective communication is critical in
groups. OB looks at verbal and non-verbal communication
patterns within groups.
• Leadership and Power: OB evaluates how leaders influence
groups, exercise power, and resolve conflicts.
• Conflict and Cooperation: It explores the sources of conflict
in groups and ways to foster collaboration.
• Team Dynamics: OB studies how group processes like
collaboration, decision-making, and task allocation impact
team effectiveness.

Interconnection
The relationship between individuals and groups in OB is
symbiotic:
• Individuals shape group dynamics, bringing their skills,
attitudes, and behaviors.
• Groups influence individuals by setting expectations, norms,
and providing support or pressure.

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Q3. Explain Evolution of OB ?
ANS :- The evolution of Organizational Behavior (OB) traces
the development of ideas and theories about how individuals and
groups act within organizations. This evolution can be divided into
several key stages:

1. Pre-Scientific Management Era (before the late 19th

century)
• Key Focus: Work was informal, and little thought was given
to worker psychology or behavior. Organizations were
managed through intuition and personal judgment.
• Key Contributors: Philosophers like Adam Smith
emphasized division of labor and economic efficiency in "The
Wealth of Nations."

2. Scientific Management (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

• Key Focus: Improving productivity and efficiency through
work standardization and time studies.
• Key Contributors:
o Frederick Taylor: Advocated for time studies, work
specialization, and standardized tasks in his book The
Principles of Scientific Management.

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 o Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Studied motion efficiency
to improve productivity and worker satisfaction.
• Impact: Laid the groundwork for analyzing tasks
scientifically but treated workers more like machines than
individuals.

3. Human Relations Movement (1930s - 1950s)

• Key Focus: Recognized the importance of human needs,
motivation, and relationships in the workplace.
• Key Contributors:
o Elton Mayo: Conducted the Hawthorne Studies,
revealing that social factors, teamwork, and management
attention affected productivity.
o Abraham Maslow: Developed the hierarchy of needs,
highlighting psychological and self-fulfillment needs in
motivation.
• Impact: Shifted focus from pure efficiency to worker
satisfaction and well-being.

4. Behavioral Science Approach (1950s - 1960s)

• Key Focus: Applying psychology, sociology, and
anthropology to understand organizational behavior.
• Key Contributors:
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 o Douglas McGregor: Proposed Theory X (authoritarian)
and Theory Y (participative), emphasizing managerial
styles.
o Herzberg: Developed the Two-Factor Theory of
motivation (Hygiene and Motivators).
• Impact: Broadened understanding of leadership, motivation,
and team dynamics.

5. Systems Approach (1960s - 1970s)

• Key Focus: Viewed organizations as open systems interacting
with their environments.
• Key Contributors:
o Ludwig von Bertalanffy: Developed general systems
theory, emphasizing interdependencies.
• Impact: Highlighted the need for organizations to adapt to
external forces and maintain internal balance.

6. Contingency Approach (1970s - 1980s)

• Key Focus: Emphasized that there is no single best way to
manage or behave; the best approach depends on situational
factors.
• Key Contributors:

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 o Researchers like Fiedler and others explored leadership
styles and their effectiveness in different contexts.
• Impact: Promoted flexibility in management practices
tailored to specific situations.

7. Modern OB and Emerging Trends (1990s - Present)

• Key Focus: Incorporates globalization, diversity, technology,
and sustainability.
• Trends:
o Positive Organizational Behavior: Focus on strengths
and virtues.
o Cultural Diversity: Managing cross-cultural teams.
o Technology and Virtual Workplaces: Managing remote
teams and technological impact on OB.
• Impact: Organizations now focus on innovation, agility, and
fostering inclusive and collaborative cultures.

Q4. Explain 5 Models of OB (Autocratic, Custodial,

Supportive, Collegial & SOBC).
ANS :- The five models of Organizational Behavior (OB) are
frameworks that explain how employees behave within
organizations, influenced by the style of management and
workplace environment. Here's a detailed explanation of each:
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1. Autocratic Model
• Key Assumption: Authority and power drive performance.
• Management Style: Command-and-control; managers make
decisions, and employees are expected to follow.
• Focus: Organizational compliance.
• Employee Needs: Met primarily through wages.
• Outcome: Employees perform because they must, often
leading to dependence on the leader and limited initiative.
• Example: Military organizations or strict hierarchical
structures.

2. Custodial Model
• Key Assumption: Economic resources and security ensure
employee satisfaction.
• Management Style: Managers provide economic benefits like
job security, fringe benefits, and incentives.
• Focus: Employee welfare.
• Employee Needs: Met through job security and financial
rewards.
• Outcome: Employees are loyal and content but lack
motivation to innovate.
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 • Example: Companies offering extensive employee benefits
like insurance and retirement plans.

3. Supportive Model
• Key Assumption: Leadership and support foster employee
growth and participation.
• Management Style: Managers emphasize guidance,
encouragement, and opportunities for professional
development.
• Focus: Psychological and motivational needs.
• Employee Needs: Self-esteem and recognition.
• Outcome: Employees are more engaged, motivated, and
willing to take initiatives.
• Example: Modern organizations promoting mentorship
programs and recognition.

4. Collegial Model
• Key Assumption: Partnership and teamwork lead to shared
responsibility and trust.
• Management Style: Managers create a collaborative culture
where employees and management work as equals.
• Focus: Responsibility and team spirit.

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 • Employee Needs: Self-actualization and achievement.
• Outcome: Employees are self-disciplined, committed, and
identify strongly with organizational goals.
• Example: Tech startups with flat hierarchies and cross-
functional teams.

5. SOBC Model (Stimulus-Organism-Behavior-Consequence)

• Key Assumption: Employee behavior is influenced by
stimuli, individual perceptions, and consequences.
• Management Style: Managers analyze and manipulate the
environment (stimuli) and consequences to shape employee
behavior.
• Focus: Behavioral responses to stimuli in the workplace.
• Employee Needs: Depend on the stimuli and organizational
context.
• Outcome: More precise control over behavior through
feedback and reinforcement.
• Example: Implementing performance-based rewards or
feedback systems.

5. Define Personality and explain its importance.

ANS:- Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a person from others. A
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product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly
consistent throughout life.
Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other
people's traits. For instance, "She is generous, caring, and a bit of a
perfectionist," or "They are loyal and protective of their friends."
The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which
refers to a theatrical mask worn by performers to play roles or
disguise their identities.
Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences,
ranging from genetic effects to the role of the environment and
experience in shaping an individual's personality.

IMPORTANT:-
Importance of Personality
1. Understanding Individual Differences
o Personality helps in identifying what makes individuals
unique, such as their preferences, strengths, and
challenges.
o It provides insights into how people might respond in
different situations.
2. Workplace Dynamics

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 o Knowledge of personality types aids in assigning tasks
that align with employees' natural tendencies, enhancing
productivity.
o It helps in managing interpersonal relationships, reducing
conflicts, and fostering teamwork.

3. Career Development
o Personality assessments (e.g., Myers-Briggs, Big Five)
guide individuals toward careers that suit their traits,
ensuring job satisfaction and success.
o Employers use personality profiling to identify candidates
with desirable attributes for specific roles.
4. Behavior Prediction
o Understanding personality enables predicting how people
are likely to behave in various situations, improving
decision-making.
o For example, an extroverted personality may thrive in
sales, while an introverted person might excel in research
roles.
5. Leadership and Management

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 o Leaders with strong personality awareness can better
motivate, inspire, and connect with their teams.
o Managers can use personality insights to adapt their
leadership style to the needs of their employees.
6. Personal Relationships
o Understanding personality fosters better communication,
empathy, and conflict resolution in personal and
professional relationships.
7. Mental and Emotional Well-being
o Awareness of personality traits helps individuals
understand their emotional triggers and develop coping
strategies.
o It promotes self-awareness and personal growth.
8. Cultural and Social Interactions
o Personality shapes how individuals perceive and adapt to
cultural norms and societal expectations.
o It influences one's ability to build networks and maintain
social harmony.

Q6.What is The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator?

ANS:- The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a widely used
personality assessment tool designed to classify individuals into
one of 16 distinct personality types based on their preferences in
how they perceive the world and make decisions. It is rooted in
Carl Jung’s psychological theories and was developed by Isabel
Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, in the mid-
20th century.

MBTI Dimensions
The MBTI evaluates personality across four dichotomies:
1. Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I):
o Extraversion: Oriented toward the external world,
energized by social interactions and activities.
o Introversion: Focused on the internal world, energized
by solitary activities and reflection.
2. Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N):
o Sensing: Focuses on concrete facts and details, prefers
practical and hands-on approaches.
o Intuition: Focuses on abstract concepts and possibilities,
enjoys exploring patterns and theories.
3. Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F):
o Thinking: Makes decisions based on logic, consistency,
and objective criteria.
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 o Feeling: Bases decisions on values, empathy, and the
impact on others.
4. Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P):
o Judging: Prefers structure, organization, and clear plans.
o Perceiving: Enjoys flexibility, spontaneity, and keeping
options open.

The 16 Personality Types

The combinations of these preferences result in 16 personality
types, each represented by a four-letter code. Examples include:
• ISTJ ("The Inspector"): Practical, detail-oriented, and
responsible.
• ENFP ("The Campaigner"): Enthusiastic, creative, and
sociable.
• INTJ ("The Architect"): Strategic, logical, and independent.
• ESFJ ("The Caregiver"): Warm, cooperative, and focused on
helping others.

Uses of MBTI
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 1. Career Guidance:
o Helps individuals identify careers that align with their
strengths and preferences.
2. Team Building:
o Facilitates better understanding and collaboration among
team members.
3. Personal Development:
o Promotes self-awareness and insights into personal
strengths and areas for growth.
4. Leadership Development:
o Guides leaders to adapt their styles to meet the needs of
diverse teams.
5. Conflict Resolution:
o Assists in understanding interpersonal differences to
minimize misunderstandings.

Limitations
• Subjectivity: Based on self-reported answers, which can be
influenced by mood or perception.
• Simplification: Critics argue that personality is too complex
to be captured in 16 categories.

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 • Lack of Predictive Power: MBTI is not scientifically
validated for predicting behavior or success in specific roles.

Q7.What is the 5 Big Personality test ?

ANS:- The Big Five personality model, also known as the Five-
Factor Model (FFM), is a widely accepted framework for
understanding human personality. It identifies five broad
dimensions that capture most individual differences in personality.
These traits are often remembered using the acronym OCEAN or
CANOE:

1. Openness to Experience
• Description: Reflects imagination, creativity, and curiosity.
• High Scores: Open-minded, adventurous, enjoys exploring
new ideas and experiences.
• Low Scores: Prefers routine, is conventional, and may resist
change.
2. Conscientiousness
• Description: Indicates self-discipline, organization, and goal-
oriented behavior.
• High Scores: Responsible, reliable, and efficient.
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 • Low Scores: Impulsive, disorganized, and less focused.
3. Extraversion
• Description: Measures sociability, energy, and the tendency to
seek stimulation.
• High Scores: Outgoing, energetic, and enjoys social
interactions.
• Low Scores: Reserved, introverted, and prefers solitude or
smaller social settings.
4. Agreeableness
• Description: Captures interpersonal orientation, including
kindness, trust, and cooperation.
• High Scores: Compassionate, cooperative, and friendly.
• Low Scores: Competitive, skeptical, and sometimes
confrontational.
5. Neuroticism (sometimes called Emotional Stability,
inversely)
• Description: Reflects emotional sensitivity and stability.
• High Scores: Prone to stress, anxiety, and emotional
instability.
• Low Scores: Calm, emotionally resilient, and less reactive to
stress.
Applications

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 • Psychology: To understand personality in research and
therapy.
• Recruitment: Used in job interviews and assessments to
match candidates with roles.
• Personal Development: Helps individuals identify strengths
and areas for improvement.

Q8. Explain Johari Window with examples.

ANS:- The Johari Window Model explained
The Johari Window (or the Jo Hari Window) was developed
by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham. The model has been around
since 1955 and ss you may have just realized, the name of the
model is derived from a combination of their first names!
This four window model recognizes some essential truths.
For example, there are parts of ourselves that we keep hidden from
others. This may be our deepest desires, or just hidden foibles, or
just ‘stuff’ that we haven’t yet found the opportunity to share.
There are also parts of ourselves that others can see, but which we
can’t see for ourselves. This can be a simple behavior such as
interrupting when other people are speaking. It’s so automatic that
we don’t notice it ourselves, but it’s very visible to other people.
Or it could be something more profound, and can be a positive(!),
such as our ability to be calm in a crisis.
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And then there is our potential, unknow to both ourselves and
others because that potential hasn’t yet been unleashed. Our life
experiences haven’t yet revealed our ability.
The model takes all that theory, and packages it into a neat 4-
window matrix that looks at what is known and unknown, to
yourself and others. And then each quadrant is labeled to
summarize its characteristics:

As you can see, the 4 boxes are:

• The Open Area (known by yourself, and know by others
too)
• The Blind Spot (unknow by yourself, but known by others)
• The Hidden Area (known by yourself, but unknown by
others)
• The Unknown (unknown by yourself, and unknown by
others too)

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The value of reflecting on these different ‘windows’ is that each
one offers you a different approach to personal development
and self discovery.
Here’s more on the four windows of the model.

UNIT 02
PERCEPTION
1.Explain perception and Factors influencing perception.
Ans:- Perception is the process by which individuals select,
organize, and interpret sensory information to understand and
interact with their environment. It involves transforming sensory
inputs (such as sights, sounds, and smells) into a coherent and
meaningful experience.
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Factors that influence perception relate to the perceiver, perceived
and situation. All these factors are of two kinds:-
Recommended
• Internal(endogeneous) factors
• External(exogeneous) factors

Internal factors
These factors reside in person concern. These include one's needs,
desires, personality and experience.
Needs and desires: an individual's perception about stimuli is
influenced by inter alia, his needs and desires at that time.
Perception varies depending upon variations in his/her needs and
desires from time to time.
Personality: closely related to needs and desires is the personality
of the perceiver, which affects what is attended to perceived in the
given situation. As mentioned earlier, research studies suggest that
secure individuals tent to understand or perceive others as warm
and self-accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked,
wanted and accepted by others.
experience: experience and knowledge serve as basis for
perception. While one's successful experience enhances his/her
perceptive ability, failure erodes his/her self confidence. Successful
experience also helps perceiver understand stimuli
with more accuracy.
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External factors
Size: The principle of size says that the larger the object, the more
is the probability that it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of
the individual. A full page spread advertisement attracts more
attention than a few lines in a classified section. The reason is not
difficult to seek. The size establishes dominance and enhances
perceptual selection.
Intensity: Intensity is closely related to size. The intensity principle
of attention states that the more intense the stimuli, the more likely
it is to be perceived. As an example, a loud noise or strong odour
will be noticed more than a soft sound and weak odour. Following
the intensity principle, the superiors may yell at their subordinates
to gain attention. Advertisers also use intensity to attract and gain
the consumer's attention.
Frequency/Repetition: The repetition principle states that a
repeated external stimulus is more attention getting than single
one. It is for this reason that advertisers go for repetitions
advertising to gain the customers attention to their product.
Contrast: As per contrast principle, the external Π stimuli which
stands out against the background will receive more attention. for
example, plant safety signs with black lettering on a yellow
background or with white lettering on a red background are more
attention-attracting.
Status: Status held by an individual also influences his/her
perception about things or event. Researches suggest that people
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with high status often exert more influence on the perception of an
individual as compared to those holding low status.
Movement: The movement principle says that people pay more
attention to a moving object than the stationary ones. People will
be attracted more by a running train than one standing
on the platform.

How to improve perception

By now, you have learnt that perception precedes behaviuor. How
one (say boss)will behave with others(say subordinates)depends on
how the former perceives the latter. More accurate the perception,
the better will be behaviuor and vice versa. In accurate perception
distorts behaviour and, in this lies the need for and importance of
improving perception. Perception can be improved by making
various attempts.
Perceiving one self accuracy: In order to perceive others
accurately, one first needs to perceive one self accurately.
Therefore, one needs to improve more awareness about
himself/herself. Frequent and better interaction with peers; free
frank and open communication with others and mutual trust are
some commonly adopted practices for perceiving one self
more accurately.
2. What is Perceptual process?
The perceptual process refers to the sequence of steps through
which individuals sense, organize, and interpret information to
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form an understanding of their environment. It explains how
people take in sensory input and turn it into meaningful
experiences.

Stages of the Perceptual Process:

1. Sensory Stimulation and Input
o The process begins with the detection of stimuli through
the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell).
o Example: Hearing a sound, seeing a color, or feeling a
texture.
2. Selection of Stimuli
o Individuals cannot process all stimuli around them, so
they select specific stimuli to focus on.
o Selection is influenced by factors like attention, interest,
needs, and expectations.
o Example: Noticing your name being mentioned in a noisy
room (cocktail party effect).
3. Organization of Information
o The selected stimuli are arranged into patterns or groups
to make sense of the input.
o Common methods of organizing information include:
▪ Figure-ground: Distinguishing the main object
(figure) from the background.
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 ▪ Grouping: Placing similar stimuli together based on
characteristics.
o Example: Seeing a sequence of flashing lights as forming
a shape.
4. Interpretation
o Assigning meaning to the organized information based on
past experiences, expectations, and cultural context.
o Interpretation is subjective and influenced by individual
differences.
o Example: Interpreting a loud noise as either fireworks or
gunshots depending on the situation.
5. Response
o After interpreting the stimuli, a person reacts to it.
o This reaction could be cognitive (thinking), emotional
(feeling), or behavioral (acting).
o Example: Feeling happy after seeing a familiar face in a
crowd.

Factors Influencing the Perceptual Process:

1. Internal Factors: Personality, motivation, learning, emotions,
attitudes.
2. External Factors: Intensity, contrast, movement, repetition,
novelty of the stimuli.
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 3. Cultural and Social Influences: Cultural norms, societal
expectations, and group dynamics.

Importance of the Perceptual Process:

• Helps individuals make sense of their environment.
• Affects decision-making, problem-solving, and
communication.
• Influences personal interactions, especially in diverse or
organizational settings.
Understanding the perceptual process is essential in fields like
psychology, marketing, and organizational behavior, where
understanding human responses and actions is critical.

3.What are Perceptual Distortions?

Ans- Perceptual distortions refer to errors or biases in the process
of perceiving reality, where individuals misinterpret sensory input,
leading to inaccurate conclusions about people, situations, or
objects. These distortions can occur due to individual differences,
contextual factors, or cognitive shortcuts.

Types of Perceptual Distortions:

1. Stereotyping

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 o Definition: Assigning attributes to someone based on
their membership in a particular group, often ignoring
individual differences.
o Example: Assuming all older employees resist
technology or all teenagers are irresponsible.
2. Halo Effect
o Definition: Forming a general impression of someone
based on one positive trait or characteristic.
o Example: Believing someone is highly competent at
work because they are well-dressed.
3. Horn Effect
o Definition: The opposite of the halo effect, where one
negative trait leads to a poor overall impression.
o Example: Assuming a person is untrustworthy because
they arrive late to a meeting.
4. Selective Perception
o Definition: Focusing on information that aligns with
one’s beliefs or interests while ignoring conflicting
information.
o Example: A manager noticing only the mistakes of an
employee they dislike while ignoring their successes.
5. Projection

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 o Definition: Attributing one’s own feelings, motives, or
traits to someone else.
o Example: Believing a colleague is competitive because
you are competitive yourself.
6. Contrast Effect
o Definition: Evaluating someone or something in
comparison to others, rather than based on objective
criteria.
o Example: Rating an average candidate highly because the
previous candidate was very poor.
7. Primacy Effect
o Definition: Giving more weight to the first impression or
initial information about a person or situation.
o Example: Judging a job candidate solely based on how
they performed in the first few minutes of an interview.
8. Recency Effect
o Definition: Giving more importance to the most recent
information or behavior.
o Example: Rating an employee’s performance highly
based on their recent success, ignoring earlier failures.
9. Attribution Errors
o Definition: Mistakes made when explaining the causes of
others’ behavior.
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 ▪ Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing
personality traits while underestimating situational
factors.
▪ Self-Serving Bias: Attributing personal successes to
oneself and failures to external factors.
o Example: Assuming a colleague missed a deadline
because they are lazy, rather than considering external
challenges.
4. Explain
4.1 Selective Perception
4.2 Stereotyping
4.3 Halo effect.
Ans:- 4.1 Selective Perception
Definition:
Selective perception is the process by which individuals focus on
specific information that aligns with their interests, beliefs, or
expectations while ignoring other potentially relevant information.
This bias allows people to process information in a way that
reinforces their preexisting views.
Key Characteristics:
• Filter Mechanism: Only certain stimuli are noticed,
remembered, or interpreted.

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 • Subjectivity: Influenced by personal experiences, preferences,
or prejudices.
• Efficiency and Bias: Helps reduce information overload but
can lead to inaccurate judgments.
Example:
A manager who believes a particular employee is unreliable might
notice only that employee's mistakes and overlook their
achievements, reinforcing their negative perception.

4.2 Stereotyping
Definition:
Stereotyping involves attributing generalized traits, characteristics,
or behaviors to an individual based on their membership in a
group, often without considering individual differences.
Key Characteristics:
• Overgeneralization: Assumes that all members of a group
share the same characteristics.
• Simplicity: Reduces complex individuals to a few predefined
traits.
• Implicit Bias: Often occurs unconsciously, influencing
decisions and behavior.
Example:
Assuming all engineers are introverted or all salespeople are
extroverted, regardless of their actual personalities.
37
Impact:
• Can lead to unfair treatment or missed opportunities for
individuals.
• Creates workplace bias, discrimination, or misunderstandings.

4.3 Halo Effect

Definition:
The halo effect occurs when a positive impression of a person in
one area influences perceptions of them in other areas, often
leading to an overly favorable evaluation.
Key Characteristics:
• Positive Bias: A single good trait (e.g., physical appearance or
charisma) overshadows other traits.
• First Impressions Matter: Initial perceptions play a strong
role in forming a halo effect.
• Unintended Influence: Can result in overestimating
someone's abilities or qualities.
Example:
Believing that a well-dressed individual is highly competent in
their job, even without evidence to support this conclusion.
Impact:
• Leads to biased decisions, such as promoting someone based
on charm rather than skill.
38
 • Can create unrealistic expectations for the person perceived
favorably.

UNIT 03
Motivation
01.Definition Motivation & explain its importance in context of
Organization behavior.
Ans :- Definition of Motivation
39
Definition of Motivation According to Michal Juicious,
“Motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a
desired course of action or to push right bottom to get the desired
reaction”
Motivation refers to the internal or external forces that stimulate
an individual to take action, persist in efforts, and achieve goals. It
is the driving force that directs behavior toward achieving personal
or organizational objectives.

Importance of Motivation in the Context of Organizational

Behavior
Motivation plays a central role in shaping employees' behavior,
attitudes, and performance within an organization. Understanding
motivation helps leaders inspire employees and align their efforts
with organizational goals.

1. Enhanced Performance
• Motivated employees work harder, smarter, and more
creatively.
Example: A sales team driven by performance-based incentives
consistently meets or exceeds targets.

40
2. Improved Job Satisfaction
When employees feel motivated, they experience greater
satisfaction in their roles.
o This leads to lower absenteeism and turnover.
o Example: Employees motivated by meaningful work are
less likely to seek external opportunities.
3. Boosts Employee Engagement
• Motivation fosters a sense of commitment and enthusiasm
toward work.
o Engaged employees are more likely to contribute
innovative ideas and solutions.
o Example: A tech firm offering learning opportunities
motivates employees to stay updated with industry trends.
4. Alignment with Organizational Goals
• Motivation ensures employees focus on tasks aligned with the
company’s objectives.
o Example: Setting clear goals with rewards motivates
teams to prioritize projects that drive business success.
5. Encourages Positive Work Culture
• A motivated workforce promotes collaboration, trust, and
respect.
o Example: Recognizing employees’ achievements fosters a
supportive environment where everyone feels valued.
41
6. Drives Organizational Growth
• Motivation enhances productivity and innovation, which are
critical for growth.
o Example: Companies with motivated employees often
outperform competitors by delivering superior customer
experiences.
2. Which are Content / Process / Contemporary theories?
Ans :- Motivational theories in organizational behavior are
categorized into three main types: Content Theories, Process
Theories, and Contemporary Theories. Each focuses on different
aspects of motivation.

1. Content Theories
42
Definition:
These theories focus on what motivates individuals by identifying
their needs and the factors that drive motivation.
Key Theories:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
o People are motivated by five hierarchical needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-
actualization.
2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
o Motivators (e.g., achievement, recognition) lead to
satisfaction.
o Hygiene factors (e.g., salary, work conditions) prevent
dissatisfaction but don’t motivate.
3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
o People are motivated by the need for achievement,
affiliation, or power.
4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
o Simplifies Maslow’s theory into three categories:
Existence, Relatedness, and Growth needs.
Focus:
What drives people’s motivation based on their needs.

2. Process Theories
43
Definition:
These theories emphasize how motivation occurs by examining the
processes through which individuals are motivated.
Key Theories:
1. Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
o Motivation is determined by:
▪ Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to performance.
▪ Instrumentality: Belief that performance leads to
rewards.
▪ Valence: Value placed on the reward.
2. Equity Theory (Adams)
o People are motivated when they perceive fairness in the
distribution of rewards relative to their inputs compared to
others.
3. Goal-Setting Theory (Locke and Latham)
o Specific, challenging, and attainable goals enhance
performance.
4. Reinforcement Theory
o Behavior is motivated by consequences, such as rewards
or punishments (positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, punishment, extinction).

44
Focus:
The process and dynamics of motivation, including individual
perceptions and decision-making.

3. Contemporary Theories
Definition:
These are modern theories that integrate elements of both content
and process theories, considering dynamic workplace
environments and evolving employee needs.
Key Theories:
1. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
o People are motivated by the need for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness.
2. Job Characteristics Model (Hackman and Oldham)
o Motivation depends on job design and includes five core
dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback.
3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
o Differentiates between intrinsic (internal satisfaction) and
extrinsic (external rewards) motivation.
4. Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)
o Theory X assumes employees are inherently lazy and
need control.
45
 o Theory Y assumes employees are self-motivated and seek
responsibility.
5. Positive Psychology and Motivation
o Focuses on strengths, well-being, and purpose to enhance
motivation.

Q 3. Explain
3.1 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy:-
Ans :- Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Proposed by: Abraham Maslow in 1943.
Definition:
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory is a psychological framework
46
that categorizes human needs into five hierarchical levels. It
suggests that individuals are motivated to fulfill basic needs before
progressing to higher-level needs.

The Five Levels of Needs

1. Physiological Needs (Basic Survival Needs)
o These are the most fundamental needs required for
survival.
o Examples: Food, water, air, shelter, sleep, and clothing.
o Workplace Examples: Adequate salary, breaks during
work hours, access to food and water, comfortable work
environment.
2. Safety Needs (Security and Stability)
o The need for physical and financial security, health, and
protection from harm.

47
 o Examples: Job security, safe working conditions, health
insurance, financial stability.
o Workplace Examples: Stable contracts, retirement plans,
protective equipment, compliance with safety standards.
3. Social Needs (Belongingness and Relationships)
o The need to feel connected to others and form meaningful
relationships.
o Examples: Friendship, family, love, social acceptance.
o Workplace Examples: Teamwork, supportive colleagues,
inclusion in decision-making, social events.
4. Esteem Needs (Recognition and Self-Respect)
o The need for respect, recognition, and a sense of
achievement.
o Examples: Confidence, independence, reputation, status.
o Workplace Examples: Promotions, awards,
acknowledgment of accomplishments, challenging job
roles.
5. Self-Actualization Needs (Personal Growth and Fulfillment)
o The highest level of need, focusing on achieving one’s
full potential.
o Examples: Creativity, personal development, problem-
solving, pursuing passions.

48
 o Workplace Examples: Opportunities for leadership,
innovation, skill development, and meaningful work.
3.2 Herzberg’s Two Factor Model Theory)
Ans:- Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Proposed by: Frederick Herzberg in 1959.
Definition:
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, also known as the Motivation-
Hygiene Theory, suggests that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction
arise from two distinct sets of factors: Motivators (which lead to
satisfaction) and Hygiene Factors (which prevent dissatisfaction).

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, as shown in this diagram, divides

workplace factors into two categories: Motivator Factors and
Hygiene Factors, which affect job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction, respectively. Here's an explanation based on the
diagram:

1. Job Satisfaction (Left Side)

Influenced by Motivator Factors: These are intrinsic factors that

lead to higher job satisfaction. Improving these factors motivates
employees and enhances their performance. Examples include:
49
 • Achievement

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• The work itself

• Advancement

• Personal growth

Principle: Improving Motivator Factors increases job satisfaction,

leading to more motivated and engaged employees.

2. Job Dissatisfaction (Right Side)

Influenced by Hygiene Factors: These are extrinsic factors related

to the work environment. While they do not directly increase
satisfaction, their absence or poor management can lead to
dissatisfaction. Examples include:

• Working conditions

• Coworker relations

• Policies and rules

50
 • Supervisor quality

• Base wage and salary

Principle: Improving Hygiene Factors decreases job

dissatisfaction, creating a more neutral or acceptable
workplace environment.

Key Insight:

Motivator Factors are essential for driving satisfaction and

motivation, but they won't reduce dissatisfaction if hygiene factors
are inadequate.
Hygiene Factors help reduce dissatisfaction, but they do not
inherently motivate or satisfy employees.
This model emphasizes the need to address both types of factors
for effective employee motivation and job satisfaction.

3.3 Vroom’s expectancy Theory

Ans :- Vroom's Expectancy Theory, developed by Victor Vroom in
1964, is a motivation theory that explains how individuals make
decisions regarding their behaviors in organizations based on their
expectations of the outcomes. The theory focuses on the cognitive
processes that influence motivation and suggests that people are
motivated to act in a certain way if they expect that their efforts
will lead to desired rewards.
51
The theory is based on three key components:
1. Expectancy (Effort → Performance)
• Definition: Expectancy is the belief or perception that one's

effort will lead to the desired level of performance.

• Example: A person believes that if they work hard enough,

they will meet or exceed the required performance standards.

If an employee believes that their effort can result in
successful performance, their motivation to put in effort
increases.
2. Instrumentality (Performance → Outcome)
• Definition: Instrumentality refers to the belief that achieving a

certain level of performance will lead to a specific outcome or

reward.
• Example: If the employee believes that performing well will

lead to a promotion or a monetary reward, they are more likely

to be motivated to perform at a high level. Instrumentality
connects performance to tangible outcomes.
3. Valence (Value of Outcome)
52
 Definition: Valence is the value an individual places on the
•

expected reward or outcome. It reflects the desirability of the

rewards for the individual.
• Example: If the employee values the reward (such as a pay

raise, recognition, or career advancement), they will be more

motivated to achieve the necessary performance. If the reward
is not important to them, their motivation to exert effort will
be lower.
Vroom’s Motivation Equation:
The theory can be summarized with the following equation:
Motivation=(Expectancy)×(Instrumentality)×(Valence)
• Motivation is influenced by the combined effect of

expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

• If any of these components is zero or low, overall motivation

will also be low.

3.4 Porter Lawler model.

Ans :- The Porter-Lawler Model of motivation, developed by
Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler in the late 1960s, builds
upon Vroom's Expectancy Theory and expands it by incorporating
a more complex view of how individuals' motivation, performance,
and satisfaction interact in organizational settings.

53
The Porter-Lawler Model of Motivation, depicted in the diagram,
explains the relationship between motivation, effort, performance,
rewards, and satisfaction. This model integrates aspects of
expectancy theory and reinforces the idea that motivation depends
on the value individuals place on rewards and their perception of
the likelihood of achieving them. Here's a breakdown of the model:

1. Value of Reward (Valence)

Starting Point: Individuals assess the desirability or value of a
potential reward (intrinsic or extrinsic).
This influences their motivation to exert effort toward achieving
the reward.

2. Perceived Effort-Reward Probability

54
This reflects an individual’s belief about whether their effort will
lead to the desired performance and subsequently to the reward.
If the perceived likelihood is high, the individual is more
motivated to put in effort.

3. Effort
The amount of effort put into the task is influenced by:
The value of the reward.
The perceived probability of obtaining the reward.

4. Ability and Traits

Effort alone is not sufficient. An individual's ability (skills,
knowledge, and experience) and traits (personality characteristics)
impact how effectively the effort translates into performance.

5. Role Perception
The individual’s understanding of what is expected from their role
also affects performance. Clear role perception improves task
accomplishment.

6. Performance Accomplishment
The culmination of effort, ability, and role perception results in
performance.

7. Rewards
Performance leads to intrinsic rewards (e.g., personal growth, job
satisfaction) and extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay, promotion).
The actual receipt of rewards depends on whether the individual
perceives the rewards as equitable or fair.
55
8. Perceived Equitable Rewards

Individuals evaluate whether the rewards they receive are fair

compared to their effort and the rewards of others. This perception
influences satisfaction.

9. Satisfaction
Satisfaction arises when:
Rewards meet or exceed the individual's expectations.
They perceive fairness in the reward system.

3.5 Equity Theory of Work Motivation

Ans :- Equity Theory of Work Motivation
The Equity Theory of Work Motivation, developed by John
Stacey Adams in the 1960s, is based on the idea that employees
are motivated by fairness in the workplace.

56
Adam's Equity Theory of Work Motivation, as illustrated in the
diagram, focuses on the concept of fairness and its impact on
employee motivation. The theory suggests that employees compare
their inputs (effort, skills, time) and outputs (rewards) with those of
others to determine whether they are being treated equitably.
Here’s how the diagram explains the theory:

1. Rewards as the Central Element

The starting point is the reward provided to employees for their

work, which can be tangible (salary, benefits) or intangible
(recognition, satisfaction).

2. Perceptions of Equity or Inequity

Rewards are evaluated based on perceived fairness in three

possible scenarios:

Inequitable Reward:
Employees feel they are receiving less than they deserve relative to
their inputs and compared to others.
Outcome: Dissatisfaction, anger, tension, reduced output, or even
exit from the organization.

57
Equitable Reward:
Employees perceive the rewards as fair, aligning with their effort
and contributions.
Outcome: Continuation of the current level of output and
engagement.

More Than Equitable Reward:

Employees feel they are receiving more than they deserve
compared to their inputs and others.
Outcome: They are motivated to work harder to justify the higher
rewards.

3. Employee Response to Perceived Inequity

• When inequity is perceived, employees may adjust their
behavior to restore balance, such as:
• Reducing effort or productivity.
• Demanding higher rewards.
• Comparing themselves with different peers.
• Leaving the organization.

The theory emphasizes the importance of perceived fairness in

maintaining employee motivation. Organizations should:

• Ensure transparency in reward systems.

• Align rewards with individual contributions.
• Foster an environment of fairness to prevent dissatisfaction
and turnover

58
This process highlights the psychological aspect of fairness in
workplace motivation and its significant impact on
performance and engagement.

59
 UNIT 04
Group & Team Dynamics
Q4. Explain Group behaviour & Group Dynamics.

Ans :-

60
Key Differences:
• Group Behavior focuses on how individuals act within a

group, often based on factors like conformity, social influence,

and motivation.
• Group Dynamics is broader and looks at how groups

function, develop, and evolve over time, examining roles,

power, and group cohesion.

Q5.What are various Types of Groups?

Ans:-
61
Types of Groups
Groups can be classified in various ways depending on factors
such as their structure, purpose, and duration. Below is a detailed
overview of different types of groups typically found in
organizational, social, and work settings:

62
 6. Explain Five -Stage Model of Group Development.
Ans :-

63
 The Five-Stage Model of Group Development was proposed
by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. This model outlines the stages that
groups typically go through as they form, evolve, and eventually
disband. The model helps to understand how groups develop
relationships, build structure, manage conflicts, and improve
performance over time. Each stage represents a critical phase in
64
 the group's development, where different dynamics and
challenges occur.
The five stages are:
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning (also called "Mourning" in later versions of the
model)

65
 6. Define - Team Effectiveness & Team Building.

Ans :-
7. What is Leadership? Differentiate between Managers and
Leaders.

66
Ans :- Leadership is the process of influencing, motivating, and
guiding individuals or groups to achieve common goals. Leaders
inspire people, create a vision, and foster an environment where
individuals can perform to their full potential. Leadership involves
not just achieving objectives but also nurturing relationships,
developing others, and adapting to change.
Key Characteristics of Leadership:
1. Visionary Thinking: Leaders focus on long-term goals and
big-picture outcomes.
2. Influence: They inspire and motivate others rather than
relying on authority alone.
3. Adaptability: Leaders are flexible in dealing with challenges
and changes.
4. Empowerment: They encourage others to grow, learn, and
contribute effectively.
5. Ethical Behavior: Strong leaders adhere to high moral
standards and build trust.

67
9. Explain
9.1 Types of Leadership
Ans :- Leadership styles refer to the ways in which leaders
approach guiding, influencing, and managing their teams. Different
situations, team dynamics, and organizational goals may call for
varying leadership styles. Here are some common types of
leadership:
68
1. Autocratic Leadership (Authoritarian)
• Definition: The leader makes decisions independently without

input from team members.

• Characteristics:

o High control over decision-making.

o Limited team participation.

o Strict supervision.

• Advantages:

o Works well in crisis situations or with unskilled teams.

o Ensures quick decision-making.

• Disadvantages:

o Can lead to low team morale and lack of creativity.

o Team members may feel undervalued.

2. Democratic Leadership (Participative)

69
 • Definition: The leader involves team members in the
decision-making process.
• Characteristics:
o Encourages collaboration.

o Values team input.

o Leader retains final authority.

• Advantages:
o Boosts team morale and motivation.

o Encourages innovation and ownership.

• Disadvantages:
o Slower decision-making.

o Not ideal for urgent situations.

3. Transformational Leadership
• Definition: The leader inspires and motivates team members

to achieve extraordinary outcomes by focusing on vision and

change.
• Characteristics:

o Visionary and forward-thinking.

o Builds strong emotional connections with team members.

o Encourages personal growth.

• Advantages:

o Drives innovation and long-term success.

o Enhances team loyalty and engagement.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires high energy and charisma from the leader.

o May neglect short-term goals.

4. Transactional Leadership
70
 • Definition: The leader focuses on structured tasks, rewards,
and punishments to achieve performance.
• Characteristics:
o Clear goals and expectations.

o Rewards compliance and penalizes failure.

o Emphasizes routine tasks.

• Advantages:
o Effective in achieving short-term goals.

o Ensures clarity and consistency.

• Disadvantages:
o May stifle creativity.

o Can lead to low team engagement.

5. Laissez-Faire Leadership (Delegative)

• Definition: The leader provides minimal supervision, giving

team members freedom to make decisions and solve problems.

• Characteristics:

o High trust in team abilities.

o Limited intervention.

o Encourages self-reliance.

• Advantages:

o Fosters creativity and innovation.

o Encourages team autonomy.

• Disadvantages:

o May lead to confusion or lack of direction.

o Ineffective with inexperienced or unmotivated teams.

6. Servant Leadership

71
 • Definition: The leader prioritizes the needs of the team and
organization before their own.
• Characteristics:
o Focus on empathy, listening, and support.

o Leader acts as a mentor.

o Team well-being is a priority.

• Advantages:
o Builds trust and strong team relationships.

o Encourages personal and professional growth.

• Disadvantages:
o May be seen as too passive.

o Can lead to slower decision-making.

7. Charismatic Leadership
• Definition: The leader relies on their charm and personality to

inspire and motivate followers.

• Characteristics:

o Strong emotional appeal.

o Builds loyalty and confidence.

o Focus on personal influence.

• Advantages:

o Highly motivating and inspiring.

o Effective in driving change.

• Disadvantages:

o Over-reliance on the leader's personality.

o Risk of leader-centric decision-making.

8. Situational Leadership

72
 • Definition: The leader adapts their style based on the team’s
needs, skills, and the situation.
• Characteristics:
o Flexible and dynamic.

o Combines elements of other leadership styles.

• Advantages:
o Tailored approach maximizes effectiveness.

o Works well with diverse teams and changing scenarios.

• Disadvantages:
o Requires high awareness and adaptability.

o May confuse teams if applied inconsistently.

9.2 Managerial Grid Theory of Leadership.

Ans :- Managerial Grid Theory of Leadership
The Managerial Grid Theory, developed by Robert R. Blake
and Jane S. Mouton in the 1960s, is a framework used to
understand and evaluate leadership styles based on two
dimensions:
1. Concern for People (Y-axis): The degree to which a leader
prioritizes the needs, well-being, and development of their
team members.
2. Concern for Production (X-axis): The emphasis a leader
places on achieving organizational goals, productivity, and
efficiency.
The intersection of these two concerns creates a grid with five key
leadership styles.

The Five Leadership Styles in the Managerial Grid

73
 1. Impoverished Leadership (1,1): Low Concern for People,
Low Concern for Production
o Characteristics: Minimal effort is put into leadership.

The leader avoids responsibility and decision-making.

o Effectiveness: Inefficient; results in low morale and poor

performance.
o Example Scenario: A leader who takes a passive

approach and does only the bare minimum to avoid

trouble.
2. Country Club Leadership (1,9): High Concern for People,
Low Concern for Production
o Characteristics: The leader focuses on maintaining

relationships and creating a friendly atmosphere but

neglects productivity.
o Effectiveness: Leads to a comfortable but unproductive

work environment.
o Example Scenario: A leader who prioritizes team

harmony at the cost of meeting deadlines or goals.

3. Authority-Compliance Leadership (9,1): High Concern for
Production, Low Concern for People
o Characteristics: The leader emphasizes task completion

and efficiency, often at the expense of team members'

morale and well-being.
o Effectiveness: Can achieve short-term goals but risks

burnout and high turnover.

o Example Scenario: A leader who enforces strict rules

and demands results without considering employees'

needs.

74
 4. Middle-of-the-Road Leadership (5,5): Moderate Concern
for People, Moderate Concern for Production
o Characteristics: The leader seeks a balance between

productivity and employee satisfaction but may not excel

in either area.
o Effectiveness: Mediocre results; avoids risks and

innovation.
o Example Scenario: A leader who compromises too often,

aiming to keep the team moderately satisfied while

meeting minimum objectives.
5. Team Leadership (9,9): High Concern for People, High
Concern for Production
o Characteristics: The ideal leadership style where the

leader fosters collaboration, trust, and high performance.

o Effectiveness: Highly effective; creates a motivated,

cohesive team that achieves outstanding results.

o Example Scenario: A leader who encourages open

communication, involves the team in decision-making,

and strives for excellence.
Concern for People
(High)
9| Team Leadership (9,9)
| /
8| /
7| /
6| /
5 | Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
4| /
3| /
75
 2| /
1 |Impoverished Leadership (1,1) Authority-Compliance
(9,1)
0|_________________________________________
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Production (High)

9.3 Path Goal Theory of leadership. What is Situational Leadership

(Hersey-Blanchard) Model?
Ans :- Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership, developed by Robert
House in 1971, focuses on how leaders can enhance employee
performance and satisfaction by clarifying the path to achieving
goals and removing obstacles. The theory emphasizes that a
leader's style should adapt to the needs of their team and the
environment.
Key Components of Path-Goal Theory
1. Leader’s Role:
o Define clear goals.

o Provide guidance and support.

o Remove barriers to success.

o Offer rewards to motivate employees.

2. Types of Leadership Styles:

o Directive Leadership: Provides specific instructions, sets

clear expectations, and closely monitors progress. Ideal

for tasks that are unstructured or ambiguous.
o Supportive Leadership: Focuses on building

relationships, offering emotional support, and ensuring a

76
 positive work environment. Best for stressful or
monotonous tasks.
o Participative Leadership: Involves team members in

decision-making, encouraging input and collaboration.

Suitable for complex tasks requiring creativity.
o Achievement-Oriented Leadership: Sets challenging

goals and expresses confidence in the team’s ability to

achieve them. Ideal for teams that are highly motivated
and capable.
3. Factors Influencing Leadership Style:
o Employee Characteristics: Skills, experience,

motivation, and need for guidance.

o Task Characteristics: Clarity, complexity, and inherent

challenges of the work.

Situational Leadership (Hersey-Blanchard) Model

The Situational Leadership Model, developed by Paul Hersey

and Ken Blanchard, emphasizes that there is no single "best"
leadership style. Instead, leaders should adapt their approach based
on the maturity level of their team members, which includes their
competence and commitment.

77
 Key
Components of the Model
1. Leadership Styles:
o Telling (Directing): High directive, low supportive

behavior. Used for employees with low competence and

high need for guidance.
o Selling (Coaching): High directive, high supportive

behavior. Suitable for employees with some competence

but low commitment.
o Participating (Supporting): Low directive, high

supportive behavior. Effective for employees with high

competence but varying commitment.
o Delegating: Low directive, low supportive behavior.

Ideal for employees with high competence and high

commitment.
78
 2. Development Levels of Employees:
o D1: Low competence, high commitment. Requires

"Telling" leadership.
o D2: Some competence, low commitment. Requires

"Selling" leadership.
o D3: High competence, variable commitment. Requires

"Participating" leadership.
o D4: High competence, high commitment. Requires

"Delegating" leadership.

Strengths of the Situational Leadership Model:

• Focuses on flexibility and adaptability.

• Tailors leadership to individual and team needs.

• Simple and intuitive framework for leaders.

Criticisms of the Situational Leadership Model:

• May oversimplify leadership dynamics.

• Relies on subjective assessment of employee competence and

commitment.
• Ignores broader organizational or cultural factors.

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 UNIT 05
STRESS AT WORKPLACE

01.What are the causes of Stress at workplace?

Ans :- A general term applied to various psychological (mental)
and physiologic (bodily) pressures experienced or felt by people
throughout their lives.

• Definition:- “a state of psychological and physiological

imbalance resulting from the disparity between situational demand
and the individual's ability and motivation to meet those needs.”
Work Stressor

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81
Q2.Define / Explain “Employee Counselling” and need of
counselling?
Ans:- Employee Counselling is a structured process through
which organizations provide professional support to employees to
help them address and resolve personal or work-related issues. The
goal is to enhance employees' psychological well-being, job
performance, and overall satisfaction. It involves listening,
advising, and guiding employees to overcome challenges, whether
they stem from workplace stress, interpersonal conflicts, or
personal problems.
Key Aspects of Employee Counselling:
82
 1. Confidentiality: The process ensures a safe and private
environment for employees to share their concerns.
2. Professional Guidance: Trained counselors or HR
professionals assist employees in developing coping strategies
and solutions.
3. Supportive Role: Counseling is non-judgmental, focusing on
understanding and helping employees.

Need for Counselling in the Workplace

Employee counseling has become increasingly important in
modern workplaces due to the growing demands and complexities
of professional and personal life. Here’s why counseling is needed:
1. To Manage Workplace Stress:
• High workloads, tight deadlines, and workplace pressures can

lead to stress.
• Counseling helps employees manage stress and maintain their

productivity.
2. To Address Emotional and Mental Health Issues:
• Personal problems, depression, anxiety, or burnout can affect

an employee’s performance.
• Counseling offers emotional support and tools for mental

health management.
3. To Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts:
• Conflicts between colleagues, supervisors, or teams can create

a toxic work environment.

• Counseling provides a platform to mediate and resolve

disputes.
4. To Improve Job Performance:

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 Employees struggling with motivation, focus, or confidence
•

can benefit from professional guidance.

• Counseling identifies root causes and helps employees regain

their effectiveness.
5. To Support Career Development:
• Employees may feel stuck or unclear about their career path.

• Counseling helps them set realistic goals and develop

strategies to achieve them.

6. To Enhance Work-Life Balance:
• Difficulty managing personal and professional responsibilities

can lead to dissatisfaction.

• Counseling provides strategies to balance priorities

effectively.
7. To Reduce Employee Turnover:
• Unaddressed issues can lead to frustration and resignations.

• Counseling helps retain employees by addressing their

concerns proactively.
8. To Foster a Positive Workplace Culture:
• Counseling shows that the organization cares about its

employees’ well-being.
• This fosters loyalty, engagement, and a supportive culture.

Q3. Explain various methods of Counselling.

Ans :- Methods of Counselling
Counselling methods vary depending on the nature of the issues
being addressed, the counselor's approach, and the individual
needs of the employee. The following are the most common
methods of counseling used in workplaces:

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1. Directive Counselling
• Definition: The counselor takes an active role in guiding the

individual by diagnosing the problem and offering advice or

solutions.
• Process:

o Counselor identifies the issue after listening to the

employee.
o Suggestions or strategies are provided to resolve the

problem.
• Advantages:

o Time-efficient and straightforward.

o Useful when the employee lacks clarity or insight.

• Disadvantages:

o May reduce employee autonomy.

o Can lead to dependency on the counselor.

2. Non-Directive Counselling (Client-Centered)

• Definition: The counselor acts as a facilitator, encouraging the

employee to explore their thoughts, feelings, and problems,

and arrive at their own solutions.
• Process:

o The employee leads the conversation, while the counselor

listens empathetically.
o Open-ended questions are used to encourage self-

reflection.
• Advantages:

o Promotes self-reliance and personal growth.

o Builds trust and rapport between counselor and employee.

• Disadvantages:

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 o Time-consuming.
o May not be effective for employees seeking direct
guidance.

3. Eclectic Counselling
• Definition: This approach combines both directive and non-

directive methods, depending on the situation and employee's

needs.
• Process:

o The counselor uses a flexible approach, starting with

active listening and switching to advice or solutions when

necessary.
• Advantages:

o Tailored to the individual and problem at hand.

o Balances guidance and employee autonomy.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires skillful assessment by the counselor.

o May confuse employees if the approach shifts abruptly.

4. Behavioral Counselling
• Definition: Focuses on modifying undesirable behaviors

through reinforcement, modeling, or training.

• Process:

o Identifies problematic behaviors.

o Develops a plan to encourage positive behaviors using

techniques like role-playing or feedback.

• Advantages:

o Clear and actionable.

o Suitable for performance-related issues.

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 • Disadvantages:
o May not address underlying emotional or psychological

issues.

5. Cognitive-Behavioral Counselling (CBT)

• Definition: Helps employees identify and change negative

thought patterns that influence behavior and emotions.

• Process:

o Employees are taught to recognize harmful thoughts.

o Tools and techniques are provided to replace negative

thoughts with constructive ones.

• Advantages:

o Effective for stress, anxiety, and performance issues.

o Focused on problem-solving and results.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires a trained counselor.

o Involves structured sessions, which may not suit

everyone.

6. Group Counselling
• Definition: Conducted in a group setting, addressing common

issues faced by multiple employees.

• Process:

o Group discussions and activities are facilitated by a

counselor.
o Encourages sharing experiences and mutual support.

• Advantages:

o Builds camaraderie and reduces feelings of isolation.

o Cost-effective for organizations.

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 • Disadvantages:
o May not address individual-specific concerns.

o Requires careful moderation to ensure confidentiality and

inclusivity.

7. Peer Counselling
• Definition: Employees are trained to act as counselors for

their peers.
• Process:

o Peer counselors offer support, empathy, and advice based

on shared experiences.
• Advantages:

o Encourages openness due to shared perspectives.

o Reduces stigma associated with seeking professional help.

• Disadvantages:

o Limited by the peer's training and expertise.

o Risk of bias or breaches of confidentiality.

8. Online Counselling
• Definition: Conducted through digital platforms like video

calls, chats, or emails.

• Process:

o Employees communicate with counselors remotely.

o Includes tools like virtual sessions, self-assessment

quizzes, or digital resources.

• Advantages:

o Convenient and accessible.

o Suitable for employees in remote or dispersed locations.

• Disadvantages:

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 o Limited by technological barriers or lack of personal
connection.
o May not suit complex emotional issues.

Q4. Elaborate the process of counselling

Ans :- Process of Counselling
The counseling process is a structured and systematic approach
aimed at helping individuals address and resolve their challenges.
It involves several stages to ensure the counselor and the counselee
(employee) work together effectively. Here's a detailed explanation
of the counseling process:

1. Building a Relationship (Rapport Building)

• Objective: Establish trust and a comfortable environment.

• Activities:

o Welcoming the counselee and creating a non-judgmental

atmosphere.
o Explaining the purpose and scope of the counseling.

o Setting boundaries and ensuring confidentiality.

• Importance: A strong rapport sets the foundation for open

communication.

2. Problem Identification
• Objective: Understand the nature of the employee's issues.

• Activities:

o Encourage the employee to share their concerns.

o Use active listening and open-ended questions to gather

information.
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 o Observe verbal and non-verbal cues to identify underlying
issues.
• Importance: Clear understanding of the problem ensures
effective resolution.

3. Goal Setting
• Objective: Define specific, measurable, achievable, relevant,

and time-bound (SMART) goals.

• Activities:

o Collaborate with the employee to outline desired

outcomes.
o Prioritize problems and focus on manageable objectives.

o Set realistic expectations for the counseling process.

• Importance: Goals provide direction and a framework for

evaluating progress.

4. Exploration and Analysis

• Objective: Delve deeper into the problem to identify causes

and patterns.
• Activities:

o Analyze the factors contributing to the issue (personal,

professional, environmental).
o Explore emotions, thoughts, and behaviors linked to the

problem.
o Help the employee gain new insights and perspectives.

• Importance: Understanding the root cause is crucial for

sustainable solutions.

5. Developing Action Plans

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 • Objective: Formulate strategies to address the identified
issues.
• Activities:
o Brainstorm potential solutions with the employee.

o Evaluate the pros and cons of each solution.

o Create a step-by-step action plan with clear

responsibilities and timelines.

• Importance: Action plans empower the employee to take
control and implement change.

6. Implementation
• Objective: Put the action plan into practice.

• Activities:

o Encourage the employee to follow through with the

agreed steps.
o Provide guidance and motivation during the

implementation phase.
o Address challenges or obstacles that arise.

• Importance: This stage translates plans into tangible results.

7. Monitoring and Evaluation

• Objective: Assess the progress and effectiveness of the

counseling process.
• Activities:

o Review progress toward the established goals.

o Seek feedback from the employee about their experience

and satisfaction.
o Make adjustments to the action plan if needed.

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 • Importance: Ensures continuous improvement and alignment
with the employee's needs.

8. Closure
• Objective: Conclude the counseling process once goals are

achieved.
• Activities:

o Summarize the key outcomes and learning points.

o Offer follow-up support if necessary.

o End the session on a positive and encouraging note.

• Importance: Provides closure and a sense of accomplishment

for the employee.

9. Follow-Up
• Objective: Ensure the long-term success of the counseling

outcomes.
• Activities:

o Periodically check in with the employee.

o Address any recurring or new issues.

o Reinforce the strategies learned during counseling.

• Importance: Reinforces the employee's growth and prevents

relapse.
.
Q5. How does performance feedback helps employee perform
better? Which could be the sources of feedback?
Ans :- How Performance Feedback Helps Employees Perform
Better
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Performance feedback is a vital tool for enhancing employee
performance and fostering professional growth. Constructive
feedback helps employees understand their strengths, areas for
improvement, and the expectations of their role. Here's how
feedback contributes to better performance:

1. Provides Clarity on Expectations

• Feedback helps employees understand what is expected of

them in terms of goals, tasks, and behavior.

• Clear expectations reduce ambiguity and enable employees to

align their efforts with organizational objectives.

2. Identifies Strengths and Areas for Improvement

• Positive feedback reinforces strengths and motivates

employees to continue their good work.

• Constructive criticism highlights areas where improvement is

needed, offering actionable insights for skill development.

3. Enhances Motivation
• Recognizing and appreciating employees’ contributions boosts

morale and engagement.

• Employees feel valued and are more likely to stay committed

to their roles.

4. Fosters Professional Growth

• Feedback often includes guidance on acquiring new skills or

refining existing ones.

• This supports employees in achieving their career goals and

staying relevant in their roles.

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5. Encourages Accountability
• Regular feedback ensures that employees are held accountable

for their performance.

• It helps them track progress and stay focused on meeting

deadlines and objectives.

6. Builds Better Relationships

• Constructive feedback fosters open communication between

employees and managers.

• It creates a culture of trust and collaboration, where employees

feel safe discussing challenges.

7. Facilitates Problem-Solving
• By addressing issues promptly, feedback helps employees

resolve challenges that may hinder their performance.

• This proactive approach prevents small issues from escalating

into bigger problems.

Sources of Performance Feedback

Feedback can come from multiple sources, each offering unique
perspectives. Here are the key sources:
1. Manager or Supervisor
• Description: Managers are typically the primary source of

feedback, as they directly oversee employees' work.

• Advantages:

o Provides insight into performance relative to

organizational goals.
o Offers expert guidance based on experience.

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 Challenges: May be biased or inconsistent without proper
•

training.
2. Peers or Colleagues
• Description: Feedback from coworkers who collaborate with

the employee regularly.

• Advantages:

o Provides a well-rounded view of teamwork and

interpersonal skills.
o Encourages a supportive and cooperative work

environment.
• Challenges: Peer feedback may be influenced by personal

relationships.
3. Subordinates (Upward Feedback)
• Description: Employees provide feedback to their managers

or team leaders.
• Advantages:

o Highlights leadership effectiveness and areas for

managerial improvement.
o Empowers employees and fosters transparency.

• Challenges: Employees may hesitate to give honest feedback

due to fear of repercussions.

4. Self-Assessment
• Description: Employees evaluate their own performance.

• Advantages:

o Encourages self-reflection and personal accountability.

o Helps identify gaps between self-perception and external

evaluations.
• Challenges: May be overly critical or overly generous,

depending on the individual.

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5. Customers or Clients
• Description: Feedback from end-users of a product or service.

• Advantages:

o Provides direct insights into customer satisfaction.

o Highlights areas for service or product improvement.

• Challenges: Limited to customer-facing roles.

6. 360-Degree Feedback
• Description: Combines feedback from multiple sources,

including managers, peers, subordinates, and self-assessment.

• Advantages:

o Offers a holistic view of an employee’s performance.

o Reduces bias by incorporating diverse perspectives.

• Challenges: Can be time-consuming and complex to

implement.
7. Performance Metrics and Data
• Description: Quantitative measures such as sales numbers,

productivity rates, or KPIs.

• Advantages:

o Provides objective and measurable insights into

performance.
o Eliminates subjective biases.

• Challenges: May not capture qualitative aspects like creativity

or interpersonal skills.

6. What are different Methods of Implementing Organizational

Change ?

Methods to Bring Change in an Organization

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Organizational change is often necessary to adapt to new
challenges, improve efficiency, and maintain competitiveness.
There are several methods and approaches that organizations can
use to implement change effectively. These methods vary
depending on the nature of the change, the organization's culture,
and the goals. Here are some common methods:

METHODS
1. Clearly define the change and align it to business goals
2. Determine impacts and those affected.
3. Develop a communication strategy.
4. Provide effective training.
5. Implement a support structure.
6. Measure the change process

7.Which could be the stimuli / reasons that may lead to the

decision of organizational change?

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 Ans :-
6. What are different methods to bring change in the
organization?
Ans :-Organisational Change "The term change refers to any
alteration which occurs in work environment of an organization."

Types of Change
1. Organization-Wide Change
2. Transformational Change
3. Personnel Change
4. Unplanned Change
5. Remedial Change

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1. Organization-Wide Change
• Definition: This type of change affects the entire organization

and its structure, processes, culture, or overall strategy.

• Example: A company rebrands, restructures its departments,

or shifts to a new business model.

• Impact: It often involves changes to core operations and may

require significant investment in communication and training.

Organization-wide change typically aims for long-term growth
or adaptation in a competitive landscape.
2. Transformational Change
• Definition: This is deep, fundamental change that shifts the

organization’s culture, strategy, or operations in a major way.

It’s often driven by external factors like market disruption or
technological innovation.
• Example: A company adopts artificial intelligence to overhaul

its entire customer service system or changes its core business

from manufacturing to digital services.
• Impact: It is usually radical and requires a clear vision, strong

leadership, and often a complete rethink of the organization’s

goals and practices. This type of change can be highly
disruptive but offers substantial long-term rewards if
successful.
3. Personnel Change
• Definition: This type of change refers to alterations in the

composition of the workforce. It can include changes in staff

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 roles, leadership, or even a complete overhaul of the
organizational hierarchy.
• Example: Hiring new executives, changing teams, or a
company-wide shift in personnel responsibilities.
• Impact: Personnel changes are often necessary when an
organization seeks to improve performance or culture, and can
involve hiring new talent, reassigning roles, or downsizing.
The effects can be immediate and disruptive, depending on the
scale of the changes.

4. Unplanned Change
• Definition: This type of change occurs unexpectedly, without

prior foresight or structured planning. It can be triggered by

external events, such as economic shifts, natural disasters, or
unforeseen organizational crises.
• Example: A sudden change in market conditions forces a

company to pivot quickly, or an unexpected crisis leads to a

need for rapid restructuring.
• Impact: Unplanned change is often reactive and requires

flexibility, quick decision-making, and adaptability. While it

can be destabilizing in the short term, it may also present
opportunities for improvement or innovation when handled
well.
5. Remedial Change
• Definition: This type of change is made to fix issues or

problems that have already occurred within the organization. It

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 focuses on correcting inefficiencies, solving problems, or
addressing areas that are underperforming.
• Example: A company introduces new quality control
measures after a product recall or restructures a failing
department.
• Impact: Remedial changes often focus on damage control and
can be critical to organizational survival. These changes are
usually less about innovation and more about recovery and
stabilization.

Q8. Why are people / organizations resist to change? How to

overcome this resistance?
Ans :- Resistance to change is a natural response that often arises
in both individuals and organizations. This resistance can stem
from a variety of psychological, cultural, and organizational
factors. Understanding why resistance occurs and how to
overcome it is crucial for successful change management.

Reasons People/Organizations Resist Change

1. Fear of the Unknown
o People fear what they don’t understand or control.

Change can bring uncertainty, and the unknown outcomes

often provoke anxiety.
o Example: Employees may worry about job security or

changes to their daily routines.

2. Loss of Control
o Change can make people feel like they have lost control

over their work or environment, leading to resistance.

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 This can manifest as reluctance to adopt new systems,
methods, or roles.
o Example: A new software system might be introduced,

and staff may feel they’re no longer in control of their

tasks.
3. Comfort with the Status Quo
o People tend to stick with what they know because it feels

safe and familiar. Even if the current situation isn’t ideal,

the predictability of existing conditions can feel more
secure than the risks associated with change.
o Example: Employees may resist adopting a new strategy

because the existing way of doing things is comfortable,

even if it’s not as effective.
4. Perceived Negative Consequences
o People often resist change when they believe it will lead

to negative outcomes, such as increased workloads, job

loss, or lower status.
o Example: If a company announces downsizing or

restructuring, employees may fear their job security or

reduced benefits.
5. Lack of Trust
o Resistance can occur when employees do not trust the

leadership driving the change. If they perceive leaders as

lacking transparency or credibility, they may reject the
change.
o Example: Employees may be skeptical about a new

organizational initiative if they feel leadership hasn’t

communicated openly about the reasons for the change.
6. Inadequate Communication
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 A lack of clear, consistent, and transparent
o

communication about the change can lead to confusion,

misunderstandings, and fear.
o Example: If a company introduces a new policy without

explaining the rationale or benefits behind it, employees

may resist because they don’t understand why it’s
necessary.
7. Lack of Skills or Resources
o Change often requires new skills, tools, or resources, and

people may resist if they feel unprepared or ill-equipped.

o Example: Employees may resist learning a new software

tool because they feel they don’t have the necessary

training or support.
8. Organizational Culture
o Organizational culture can play a significant role in

resistance. Cultures that are more hierarchical, rigid, or

risk-averse tend to be more resistant to change than more
flexible, innovative environments.
o Example: A traditional company with a long history of

doing things in a certain way may have employees who

are deeply resistant to new ideas or processes.

How to overcome the Resistance to Change

• Education and Communication

• Creating Strong vision
• Felicitation and Support
• Participation and Involvement of members
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 • Advocating Leadership
• Negotiation and agreement
• Reward System
• Climate Conductive to Communications
• Transparency and power strategies
• Highlighting the benefits of change

9. Explain
9.1 Kurt Lewin’s Three Step Model for organizational change.

ANS :-

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Kurt Lewin’s Three-Step Model is one of the foundational
frameworks for understanding and managing organizational
change. This model emphasizes the psychological process of
change and provides a clear, simple way to approach change
initiatives. Lewin’s model is based on the idea that organizations
and individuals are in a state of equilibrium, and change involves a
process of moving from one equilibrium to another. The three
steps in this model are:
1. Unfreezing
• Purpose: The goal of the unfreezing stage is to prepare the

organization or individuals for change. It involves breaking

down the existing mindset or behaviors, creating awareness
about the need for change, and preparing people to move away
from their current state.
• Explanation: Before any change can happen, the status quo

must be "unfrozen" — meaning people must be made aware of

the need to change and the current way of doing things must
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 be challenged. This step reduces resistance and prepares
individuals mentally for the transition ahead.
• Activities Involved:

o Identify the need for change: Communicate why change

is necessary, addressing the challenges or opportunities

driving the need for change.
o Create motivation: Use communication, data, and

emotional appeals to help people understand the need for

change and create a sense of urgency.
o Overcome resistance: Address fears, misconceptions,

and reluctance toward change. Provide reassurance and

involve employees in discussions about the change.
• Example: A company may use surveys or town hall meetings

to demonstrate that its existing processes are no longer

competitive or efficient in the current market.
2. Changing (or Moving)
• Purpose: This is the stage where the actual transition or

transformation happens. New behaviors, processes, or ways of

thinking are introduced and implemented.
• Explanation: Once the organization is "unfrozen," it is ready

for change. In this phase, new structures, systems, and

behaviors are adopted. It involves the implementation of the
planned changes and requires strong leadership, clear
communication, and support systems.
• Activities Involved:

o Introduce new ways of doing things: This could be new

technologies, procedures, team structures, or cultural

changes.

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 o Provide training and support: Help employees adapt to
the new changes by offering resources, coaching, and
training.
o Foster participation and involvement: Engage people in

the process by involving them in decision-making and

implementation activities. This creates a sense of
ownership and reduces resistance.
• Example: A company might roll out a new software system,

train employees on how to use it, and begin shifting from old
processes to the new system. During this phase, people might
struggle with the transition, but continuous support and
encouragement are key.
3. Refreezing
• Purpose: The refreezing stage is about solidifying the new

ways of working and ensuring that the changes are integrated

into the organization’s culture and everyday operations.
• Explanation: After the change has been implemented, it’s

essential to stabilize the new state to prevent people from

reverting to the old ways. This stage involves reinforcing and
institutionalizing the changes so they become a permanent part
of the organization’s functioning.
• Activities Involved:

o Reinforce the new behaviors: Use rewards, recognition,

and positive reinforcement to encourage the desired

behaviors and outcomes.
o Embed changes into culture: Ensure that the new

processes or behaviors are integrated into the

organization's norms, values, and practices.

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 o Monitor and maintain: Continue to evaluate the
effectiveness of the change and make adjustments as
necessary. Keep the momentum of change going by
addressing any issues that may arise.
• Example: After the software system is implemented, the
company continues to reinforce its use through performance
reviews, updates, and continued training. Over time, the new
system becomes the norm, and old ways of doing things are
phased out.
•

9.2 Kotter’s 8 Step Model of Change

Ans :- The 8 Steps for Leading Change
Kotter’s award-winning methodology is the proven approach to
producing lasting change

1. Create A Sense of Urgency

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Inspire people to act – with passion and purpose – to achieve a
bold, aspirational opportunity. Build momentum that excites
people to pursue a compelling (and clear) vision of the future…
together.
02. Build A Guiding Coalition
A volunteer network needs a coalition of committed people – born
of its own ranks – to guide it, coordinate it, and communicate its
activities.
03. Form A Strategic Vision
Clarify how the future will be different from the past and get buy-
in for how you can make that future a reality through initiatives
linked directly to the vision.
04. Enlist A Volunteer Army
Large-scale change can only occur when massive numbers of
people rally around a common opportunity. At an individual level,
they must want to actively contribute. Collectively, they must be
unified in the pursuit of achieving the goal together.
“It’s not a project. It’s a movement. It’s a journey. Join us and
leave your mark.”
05. Enable Action By Removing Barriers
Remove the obstacles that slow things down or create roadblocks
to progress. Clear the way for people to innovate, work more
nimbly across silos, and generate impact quickly.
06. Generate Short-Term Wins
Wins are the molecules of results. They must be recognized,
collected, and communicated – early and often – to track progress
and energize volunteers to persist.
07. Sustain Acceleration

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Press harder after the first successes. Your increasing credibility
can improve systems, structures and policies. Be relentless with
initiating change after change until the vision is a reality.
“The way that you can guarantee success in a difficult change… is
to not skip any of the steps or the learnings.”
08. Institute Change
Articulate the connections between new behaviors and
organizational success, making sure they continue until they
become strong enough to replace old habits. Evaluate systems and
processes to ensure management practices reinforce the new
behaviors, mindsets, and ways of working you invested in.

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