class 03

Environment Class 03
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND

DISCUSSION ON UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS -
(01:19 PM)
EXAMPLES OF BIOTIC INTERACTIONS (Continued) - (01:15

PM)
Examples of commensalism -
a) Suckerfish- Remora attaches itself to a shark.
b) Barnacle - attaching to whales.
c) Epiphytes - Epiphytic plants live on the surface of other
trees for support and sunlight. They are mostly found in
tropical rainforests.
Examples of predation -
In this type of interaction, a predator captures, kills, and
eats an animal of another species called 'the Prey'.
In a broader ecological context, even Harbivores are not
very different from predators.
Predators are important because -
a) They help maintain species diversity in a community by
reducing the intensity of competition among competing
prey species.
b) In the absence of natural predators, alien species can
become invasive.
c) If a predator overexploits a prey then the prey might
become extinct and subsequently, even the predator can
become extinct.
This is why, predators in nature are prudent.
Parasitism -
Parasites are usually small-sized organisms living in
(endo-parasitism or ectoparasitism) another living
species called the host.
Many parasites are evolved to the host specifically, often
hosts and parasites co-evolve.
The life cycle of some parasites is very complex, involving
one or two intermediate hosts to facilitate parasitization
of the primary host.
Examples -
a) Fleas and ticks on animals.
b) Tabeworms in vertebrate species - They attach to the
intestinal wall and absorb nutrients from the host's
digested food.
c) Mistletoe plant - They are parasitic plants, that attach
to tree branches, they penetrate the branches to draw
water and nutrients.
d) Brood Parasitism - Cuckoo species are called brood
parasites, they lay their eggs in the nests of other bird
species.
Ammensalism -
Examples-
a) Allelopathy - some plants such as walnut releases a
chemical called - Juglone, which inhibits the growth of
many plants, the walnut tree remains unaffected.
b) Penicillium Mold - (Fungi) - Penicillin is derived from
these fungi which inhibits the growth of surrounding
bacteria, and mold remains unaffected.
c) Shading by large trees inhibits the growth of smaller
plants.
d) Trampling by large animals adversely affects smaller
plants and animals.
Competition -
Interaction between two populations in which both
species are harmed to some extent.
For example - Lion and Hyena.
ECOSYSTEM APPROACH - (01:57 PM)
Topics to be covered -
Primary production.
Energy flow- food chain.
Nutrient cycling.
Ecological succession.
Homeostasis of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem Services.
ECOTONE - (02:01 PM)
An ecotone is a transition area between two different
ecosystems where the edges of two adjacent ecosystems
overlap and integrate.
For example -
a) Estuaries - where freshwater rivers meet the ocean,
estuaries can be formed, known for a variety of life
forms.
b) Mangrove Swamps- Between land and salt water, it
represents unique tree species adapted to brackish
water.
c) The edge effect of ecotone signifies more species
diversity in ecotone, compared to adjacent ecosystems.
Ecotones often provide combined resources for both
ecosystems within a small area, ecotones provide
different types of habitats and the mixing of species from
adjacent ecosystems leads to unique interactions.
Ecoline -
It represents continuous variation or gradual change in
plant phenotype and associated genotype along an
environmental gradient.
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM - (02:16 PM)
Primary production.
Energy flow- food chain and food web.
Nutrient cycling - carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur.
Ecological succession.
Homeostasis of an ecosystem.
Ecosystem Services.
1) PRIMARY PRODUCTION - (02:18 PM)
It is the storage of energy through the formation of

organic matter from inorganic compounds.
It is carried out by autotrophic organisms.
Photosynthesis is the most important pathway toward
primary production, the part of sunlight utilized by plants
for photosynthesis is called photosynthetically active
radiation (400-700 nm wavelength).
Primary production depends upon other factors apart
from the availability of sunlight and water.
It also requires nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorous to build bio-molecules such as proteins and
nucleic acids.
Chemosynthesis -
It is a process by which, certain microbes can produce
energy-rich molecules from chemicals present in their
environment typically in the absence of sunlight.
For example - Many deep-sea bacteria use hydrogen
sulfide that rises from deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
6CO2+6H2O+3H2S- C6H2O6+3H2SO
Hydrothermal vents are the result of sea water
percolating down in the ocean crust.
It is heated by hot magma and reemerges to form these
vents, these vents typically have high biomass.
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY - (GPP) - (02:53 PM)
It is the rate of production of organic matter that is

primary production per unit time per unit area.
A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in
respiration.
Define Net Primary Productivity as Gross Primary
Productivity - Respiration losses. (NPP = GPP-R).
Thus, NPP represents the available bio-mass for the
consumption of heterotrophs.
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation
of new organic matter by consumers.
Productivity can be measured in Kg per meter square per
year or it can also be kilo calory per meter square per
year.
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH FOOD CHAIN - (03:11 PM)
The transfer of food energy from producers through a

series of organisms that consume and are consumed is
termed as food chain.
It indicates the movement of energy through a system.
There can be two major food chains within any
ecosystem -
a) Grazing food chain- the source of energy is plant
biomass.
b) Detritus food chain- It begins with dead organic
matter, detrivores are organisms that consume inorganic
matter directly and break it into smaller pieces.
Examples can be earthworms, woodlice, and Millipedes.
An even more important role is played by decomposers
(Mainly bacteria and fungi) they meet their energy and
nutrient requirements by decomposing organic matter
and can convert them back into simple inorganic
materials.
Based on the source of nutrition, organisms occupy a
specific place in the food chain, which is called the
'Trophic Level'.
Trophic I- Producers.
Trophic - II - Primary consumers. (Hervivores).
In an aquatic ecosystem, the Grazing food chain is the
major conduit for energy flow while in the terrestrial
ecosystem, it is the Detritus food chain (DFC).
This is because of the accumulation of organic matter in
terrestrial ecosystems and often optimum conditions of
decomposition.
Food Web -
One species can occupy more than one trophic level.
DFC may be connected to grazing food chains in the
ecosystem, such interconnections of food chains,
represent a food web.
ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY - (03:33 PM)
It represents the percentage of energy in the biomass

produced by one trophic level that is incorporated into
the biomass produced by the next higher trophic level.
It can vary from 5-40 percent but on average 10 percent
of energy is transferred to a trophic level from a lower
trophic level.
This is called Lindeman's rule.
This 10% rule can be used to understand why food chains
will not have 7 or 8 trophic levels, most of the food
chains are up to trophic level 4 or 5.
HOMEWORK (To be completed before the next class) -
(03:42 PM)
Details of primary producers in terrestrial ecosystem.

Details of primary producers and also primary consumers
in an ecosystem.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID - (03:48 PM)
It is a graphic representation of trophic levels in an

ecosystem.
It can be represented in three ways -
a) Pyramid of numbers -
It represents the number of organisms at each tropic
level, generally, it is upright, that is the number decreases
as we go to the higher trophic level.
In some special cases, it can be inverted or even spindle-
shaped, for example - A big tree in an ecosystem.
b) Pyramid of biomass -
Biomass is the amount of living matter at any given time.
In the pyramid of Biomass, we can represent total dry
biomass per unit area at each trophic level.
Generally, it is upright but there can be an inverted
pyramid of biomass.
For example - The aquatic ecosystem. In aquatic
ecosystems such as ponds or lakes, the pyramid of
biomass may be inverted.
c) Pyramid of energy - It represents the total amount of
energy at each tropic level.
Energy pyramids are never inverted.
THE TOPIC OF DISCUSSION FOR THE NEXT CLASS WILL BE
BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION, NUTRIENT
CYCLE.

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Environment Class 03

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS AND

EXAMPLES OF BIOTIC INTERACTIONS (Continued) - (01:15

It is the storage of energy through the formation of

It is the rate of production of organic matter that is

The transfer of food energy from producers through a

It represents the percentage of energy in the biomass

Details of primary producers in terrestrial ecosystem.

It is a graphic representation of trophic levels in an

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