UNIT-V AMPLIFIERS, OSCILLATORS & BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTS (10 Hrs)

a) Amplifiers – Classification of amplifiers, Coupling amplifiers – RC Coupled amplifier –

frequency response characteristics (no derivation), Feedback in Electronic circuits – Positive
and Negative feedback, expressions for gains, advantages of negative feedback, Barkhausen
criteria, RC phase shift oscillator.
b) Basic operating principles and uses of (i) ECG machine (ii) Radiography (iii) Ultrasound
scanning (iv) Ventilator (v) Pulse oximeter.
AMPLIFIERS, OSCILLATORS
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the strength or amplitude of an
electrical signal. It takes a weak input signal and produces a more powerful output signal,
usually in the form of voltage or current.
Amplifiers are classified based on various criteria, including their application,
frequency range, and configuration.
Based on number of stages: Depending upon the number of stages of Amplification, there are
Single-stage amplifiers and Multi-stage amplifiers.
 Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit, which is a single stage
amplification.
 Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit, which provides multi-stage
amplification.
Based on its output: Depending upon the parameter that is amplified at the output, there are
voltage and power amplifiers.
 Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the voltage level of the input
signal, is called as Voltage amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the power level of the input signal,
is called as Power amplifier.
Based on the input signals: Depending upon the magnitude of the input signal applied, they
can be categorized as Small signal and large signal amplifiers.
 Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to produce small
fluctuations in the collector current compared to its quiescent value, the amplifier is known
as Small signal amplifier.
 Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current are large i.e. beyond
the linear portion of the characteristics, the amplifier is known as large signal amplifier.
Based on the frequency range: Depending upon the frequency range of the signals being
used, there are audio and radio amplifiers.
 Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in the audio
frequency range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz frequency range, is called as audio amplifier.
 Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals that lie in a very high
frequency range, is called as Power amplifier.
Based on Biasing Conditions: Depending upon their mode of operation, there are class A,
class B and class C amplifiers.
 Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier are such that the
collector current flows for the entire AC signal applied.
 Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier are such that the
collector current flows for half-cycle of input AC signal applied.
 Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier are such that the
collector current flows for less than half cycle of input AC signal applied.
 Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is created by combining
both class A and class B in order to have all the advantages of both the classes and to
minimize the problems they have.
Based on the Transistor Configuration: Depending upon the type of transistor configuration,
there are CE CB and CC amplifiers.
 CE amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CE configured transistor
combination is called as CE amplifier.
 CB amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CB configured transistor
combination is called as CB amplifier.
 CC amplifier − The amplifier circuit that is formed using a CC configured transistor
combination is called as CC amplifier.
Based on the Coupling method: Depending upon the method of coupling one stage to the
other, there are RC coupled, Transformer coupled and direct coupled amplifier.
 RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage
using resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can be called as a RC coupled amplifier.
 Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next
stage, with the help of a transformer, can be called as a Transformer coupled amplifier.
 Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled to the next stage
directly, can be called as a direct coupled amplifier.
RC Coupled Amplifier
The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the
mostly used coupling technique in amplifiers. The constructional details of a two-stage RC
coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as follows. The two-stage amplifier circuit has two
transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common power supply VCC is used. The
potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re forms the biasing and stabilization
network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal. The figure
below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial
stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the
coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages
and controls the shift of operating point.
Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier
When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and
appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the
next stage. This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears
across its collector load. Thus, the signal is amplified in stage-by-stage action.
The important point that must be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product
of the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the
first stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect
of the input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of
the last stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two-stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because
the phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage
gain and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown
in the following graph.
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for
the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

1
XC =
2πfC
It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.
At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies,
the reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor C in and the coupling capacitor CC
are so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. So the voltage gain rolls off at
low frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high
frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this,
the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain, and increases the
base current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain
rolls off at high frequencies.
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)
The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies,
as shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases
which tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactance increases the loading
effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction in gain. Due to these two factors, the gain
is maintained constant.
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency
range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors which
are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier
 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers.
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

Feedback Amplifiers:
Feedback is defined as the process in which a part of output signal (voltage or current) is
returned back to the input.
The amplifier that operates on the principle of feedback is known as feedback amplifier.
Types of Feedback
Depending upon whether the feedback energy aids or opposes the input signal, there are
two basic types of feedback in amplifiers viz
 Positive Feedback
 Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback: If the original input signal and the feedback signal are in phase, the
feedback is called as positive feedback.
Negative Feedback: If the original input signal and the feedback signals are out of phase then
the feedback is called as negative feedback.
In the amplifier without feedback the most important thing to understand is that the output and
input terminals of this amplifier are not connected to each other in any way. Therefore, the
amplifier of is an amplifier without any feedback. Gain without any feedback is
 Vo
A=
Vi
Here the same amplifier with a gain A is being used along with a mixer network, sampling
network and a feedback network. The voltage gain of the feedback amplifier is given by,

Vo
Af =
Vs
Amplifier With Positive Feedback
When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase with the input signal and thus
aids it, it is called positive feedback. Both amplifier and feedback network introduce a phase
shift of 180°. The result is a 360° phase shift around the loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf
to be in phase with the input signal Vin.

The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier. However, it has the
disadvantages of increased distortion and instability. Therefore, positive feedback is seldom
employed in amplifiers. One important use of positive feedback is in oscillators.
Amplifier With Negative Feedback
When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase with the input signal and
thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback. As you can see, the amplifier introduces a phase
shift of 180° into the circuit while the feedback network is so designed that it introduces no
phase shift (i.e., 0° phase shift). The result is that the feedback voltage V f is 180° out of phase
with the input signal V in.

Negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, the advantages of
negative feedback are: reduction in distortion, stability in gain, increased bandwidth and
improved input and output impedances. It is due to these advantages that negative feedback is
frequently employed in amplifiers.
Gain of Negative Voltage Feedback Amplifier
Consider the negative voltage feedback amplifier shown in Figure.

The gain of the amplifier without feedback is Av.

.Negative feedback is then applied by feeding a fraction mv of the output voltage e 0 back to
amplifier input. Therefore, the actual input to the amplifier is the signal voltage e g minus
feedback voltage in mv e0. i.e.,
Actual input to amplifier = eg – mv e0
The output e0 must be equal to the input voltage eg – mv e0 multiplied by gain Av of the amplifier
(eg – mv e0) Av = e0
 Av eg − Av mv e0 = e0
or e0 (1 + Av mv) = Av eg
e0 AV
=
eg 1 + AV mV
But e0/eg is the voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback.
∴ Voltage gain with negative feedback is
AV
AVf =
1 + A V mV
• It may be seen that the gain of the amplifier without feedback is Av. However, when negative
voltage feedback is applied, the gain is reduced by a factor 1 + Av mv.
• It may be noted that negative voltage feedback does not affect the current gain of the circuit.
Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback
 Gain stability. An important advantage of negative voltage
 Reduces non-linear distortion
 Improves frequency response.
 Increases circuit stability
 Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance
BARKHAUSEN CRITERION FOR OSCILLATION
Introduction:
An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as generator, generating the output signal which
oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired frequency. The feedback is a property
which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same Circuit as its input. Such feedback
is said to be positive whenever the part of the output that is feedback to the amplifier as its
input, is in phase with the voltage gain A is shown in below

 Assume that a sinusoidal input signal Vs is applied to the circuit. As amplifier is non-
inverting, the output voltage Vo is in phase with the input signal Vs.
 The part of the output fed back to the input with the help of a feedback netork.no phase
Change is introduced by the feedback network.
 As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input applied the feedback is
called positive feedback.
 The closed loop gain of positive feedback is given by,
A
Af =
1 − Aβ
 Thus, without an input, the output will continue to oscillate whose frequency depends upon
the feedback network or the amplifier or both. Such a circuit is called as an oscillator.
Barkhausen criterion states that
1. The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds from input through amplifier,
feedback network back to the input again, completing a loop, is precisely 0 0 or 3600 or of
course an integral multiply of 2π radians.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the feedback
factor β is unity i.e. |Aβ|=1
 If satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained
oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude.
 In reality no input is needed to start the oscillation. In practice Aβ>1 to start the oscillation
and then circuit adjust itself to get Aβ=1, finally resulting into self-sustained oscillations.
 Let us see the effect of the magnitude of the product Aβ on the nature of the oscillations.
|Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| >1, then the output oscillates
but the oscillations are of growing type.

|Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| = 1, then the oscillations are
with constant frequency amplitude called sustained oscillations.
|Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| >1, then the oscillations are of
decaying type i.e such oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially and the oscillations finally
cease.

Starting voltage:
 It is mentioned that no external input is required in case of oscillators.
 Every resistance has some free electrons. Under the influence of normal room temperature,
these free electrons move randomly in various directions. Such movements of the free
electrons generate a voltage called noise voltage, across the resistance.
 Such noise voltages present across the resistances are amplified. Hence to amplify such
small noise voltage and start the oscillations, |Aβ| is kept greater than unity at start.
 The circuit adjusts itself to get |Aβ| =1 and with phase shift of 3600 we get sustained
oscillations.
R-C Phase shift Oscillator:
 RC phase shift oscillator basically consists of an amplifier and a feedback network
consisting of resistor and capacitors arranged in ladder fashion. Hence such an oscillator is
also called ladder type RC phase shift oscillator.
 RC network is used in feedback path. In oscillator, feedback network must introduce a
phase shift of 1800 to obtain total phase shift around a loop as 3600
 Thus if one RC network produces phase shift of φ=600 then to produce phase shift of 1800
such three RC networks must be connected in cascade.
 Hence in RC phase shift oscillator, the feedback network consists of three RC sections each
producing a phase shift of 600, thus total phase shift due to feedback is 1800.
 Transistorized RC phase shift oscillator, a transistor is used as an active device element of
the amplifier.
 Figure shows a practical transistorized RC phase shift oscillator which uses a common
emitter single stage amplifier and a phase shifting network consisting of three identical RC
sections.
 The output of the feedback network gets loaded due to the low input impedance of a
transistor. Hence an emitter follower input stage before the common emitter amplifier stage
can be used, to avoid the problem of low input impedance.
 A phase shifting network is a feedback network, so output of the amplifier is given as an
input to the feedback network, so amplifier supplies its own input, through the feedback
network.
 BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTS
Electrocardiogram (ECG):
Electrocardiogram refers to the recording of electrical changes that occurs in heart
during a cardiac cycle. It may be abbreviated as ECG or EKG.
Electrocardiograph:
It is an instrument that picks up the electric currents produced by the heart muscle
during a cardiac cycle of contraction and relaxation.
Working principle of electrocardiograph:
It works on the principle that a contracting muscle generates a small electric current
that can be detected and measured through electrodes suitably placed on the body.
 For a resting electrocardiogram, a person is made to lie in the resting position and electrodes
are placed on arms, legs and at six places on the chest over the area of the heart. The
electrodes are attached to the person’s skin with the help of a special jelly.
 The electrode picks up the current and transmit them to an amplifier inside the
electrocardiograph. Then electrocardiograph amplifies the current and records them on a
paper as a wavy line.
 In an electrocardiograph, a sensitive lever traces the changes in current on a moving sheet
of paper.
 A modern electrocardiograph may also be connected to an oscilloscope, an instrument that
display the current on a screen.
Normal ECG wave:
A normal ECG makes a specific pattern of three recognizable waves in a cardiac cycle.
These waves are- P wave, QRS wave and T-wave, P-R interval, S-T segment.

P-wave: It is a small upward wave that appears first. It indicates atrial depolarization (systole),
during which excitation spreads from SA node to all over atrium. About 0.1 second after P-
wave begins, atria contracts. Hence P-wave represents atrial systole
QRS wave: It is the second wave that begins as a little downward wave but continues as a large
upright triangular wave and ends as downward wave. It represents the ventricular
depolarization (systole). Just after QRS wave begins, ventricles starts to contracts. Hence QRS
wave represents ventricular systole
T- wave: It is third small wave in the form of a dome-shaped upward deflection. It indicates
ventricular repolarization (diastole). It also represents the beginning of ventricular diastole.
ATRIAL DIASTOLE MERGES WITH QRS-WAVE
P-R interval: It represents the time required for an impulse to travel through the atria, AV node
and bundle of his to reach ventricles.
S-T segment: It is measured from the end of S to the beginning of T- wave. It represents the
time when ventricular fibres are fully depolarized.
Application of ECG:
 it indicates the rate and rhythm or pattern of contraction of heart
 it gives a clue about the condition of heart muscle and is used to diagnose heart disorders
 it helps the doctors to determine whether the heart is normal, enlarged or if its certain
regions are damaged
 it can also reveal irregularities in heart’s rhythm known as ‘arrhythmia’
 it is used by doctors to diagnose heart damage in conditions like high blood pressure,
rheumatic fever and birth defects
 an ECG also helps to determine the location and amount of injury caused by heart attack
and later helps to assess the extent of recovery
Significance of different waves in an ECG deviating from normal ECG
Enlarged P-wave: It indicates enlarged atrium (it occurs in a condition called mitral stenosis
in which due to narrowing of mitral valve, blood backs up into left atrium)
Enlarged Q-wave: downward wave It indicates a myocardial infraction ( heart attack)
Enlarged R- wave: It indicates enlarged ventricles
Long P-Q interval: It indicates more time taken by impulse to travel through atria and reach
ventricles. It happens in coronary artery disease and rheumatic fever when a scar tissue may
form in heart
Elevated S-T segment: When S-T segment is above the base line, it may indicates acute
myocardial infraction.
Depressed S-T segment: It indicates that heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen
Flatter T-wave: It indicates insufficient supply of oxygen to heart muscle as it occurs in
coronary artery disease
Elevated T-wave: It may indicates increased level of potassium ions in blood as in
hyperkalemia.

Radiography
Radiography is a medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to create images of the
internal structures of a body. It's widely used in the field of medicine for both diagnostic and
treatment purposes. Here are the basic operating principles and uses of radiography:
Operating Principles:
X-ray Generation: X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light but
at much higher energy levels. They are produced by an X-ray machine, which contains a tube
that emits X-ray photons when energized.
X-ray Absorption: When X-rays pass through the body, different tissues (like bones, muscles,
and organs) absorb varying amounts of the radiation. Dense tissues like bones absorb more X-
rays and appear white on the image (radiopaque). Less dense tissues like muscles and organs
allow more X-rays to pass through and appear darker (radiolucent).
Image Formation: The X-rays that pass through the body strike a detector on the opposite
side. This detector converts the X-ray energy into an electrical signal. The signal is then
processed by a computer to create an image.
Exposure Factors: The quality and quantity of X-rays are controlled by exposure factors like
tube current, tube voltage, and exposure time. These factors can be adjusted to optimize image
quality based on the specific area being examined.
Uses:
Diagnostic Imaging: Bone Fractures and Dislocations: Radiography is often used to diagnose
fractures, dislocations, and other bone-related injuries.
Chest X-rays: They are used to detect conditions like pneumonia, lung cancer, or heart-related
issues.
Dental X-rays: Used to visualize teeth, jawbones, and surrounding structures.
Abdominal X-rays: Can help identify issues in the digestive system like obstructions, ulcers,
or foreign objects.
Mammography: Specialized X-ray for breast tissue to screen for or diagnose breast cancer.
Mammograms: Used for early detection of breast cancer, especially in women over a certain
age or with specific risk factors.
Chest X-rays for TB Screening: Particularly in populations where tuberculosis is prevalent.
Oncology: Radiography is used in radiation therapy to plan the delivery of radiation to
cancerous tumors while minimizing exposure to surrounding healthy tissue.
Orthopedics: Helps in surgical planning for complex fractures and joint replacements.
Quality Control: Radiography is used to ensure the integrity and quality of manufactured
products, especially in industries like aerospace and automotive.
Forensic Investigation: X-rays are used to examine bodies for evidence of injuries, foreign
objects, or other important details.
Non-Medical Applications: Radiography is also used in various non-medical fields like
industrial testing (to detect structural flaws in materials), security (such as in airports for
luggage screening), and archaeology (to examine artifacts without damaging them).
While radiography is an invaluable diagnostic tool, it does involve exposure to ionizing
radiation. Therefore, it should be used judiciously, with the benefits outweighing the risks.
Protective measures, like lead shielding and proper dosages, are used to minimize patient and
operator exposure.

Ultrasound Scanning: Principles and Operation

Introduction: Ultrasound imaging, also known as sonography, is a non-invasive medical
imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize internal structures of the
body.
Operating Principles:
Ultrasound uses mechanical vibrations, or sound waves, with frequencies above the range of
human hearing (> 20,000 Hz). Piezoelectric crystals in the ultrasound transducer convert
electrical energy into mechanical vibrations, creating ultrasound waves.
Transmission of Ultrasound Waves: These waves are directed into the body and propagate
through tissues. The waves are longitudinal, meaning they travel in the direction of particle
oscillation.
Reflection and Absorption: When ultrasound waves encounter a boundary between tissues
with different acoustic properties (e.g., tissue and bone), some of the wave energy reflects back
towards the transducer. The degree of reflection depends on the acoustic impedance mismatch
between the tissues.
Echo Formation: The returning waves (echoes) are detected by the same transducer that
emitted them. The piezoelectric crystals in the transducer convert the mechanical vibrations
back into electrical signals.
Time-of-Flight Calculation: By measuring the time it takes for the echo to return, the system
calculates the distance the sound wave traveled (since the speed of sound in tissues is
approximately constant). This information is used to create depth-resolved images.
Image Construction: The collected signals are processed by a computer to construct a two-
dimensional image representing tissue boundaries and structures.
Doppler Effect in Ultrasound: The Doppler effect is used in ultrasound to assess blood flow
and velocity. When ultrasound waves encounter moving red blood cells, the frequency of the
reflected waves changes. This is known as the Doppler shift. The Doppler effect enables the
calculation of blood flow velocities, helping in the diagnosis of cardiovascular conditions.
Advantages of Ultrasound:
Non-Invasiveness: Unlike X-rays or CT scans, ultrasound does not involve ionizing radiation,
making it safer for repeated use, particularly in prenatal imaging.
Real-time Imaging: Ultrasound provides real-time visualization, which is crucial for guiding
procedures and interventions.
High Soft Tissue Contrast: Ultrasound is particularly effective in differentiating between soft
tissues, making it invaluable for obstetric and gynecologic imaging.
Portability: Ultrasound machines can be relatively compact, allowing for bedside
examinations and in-field use.
Applications:
Obstetrics and Gynecology: Monitoring fetal development, detecting anomalies, and
evaluating reproductive organs.
Cardiology: Assessing heart structure, function, and blood flow.
Abdominal Imaging: Examining liver, pancreas, kidneys, and other abdominal organs.
Musculoskeletal Imaging: Assessing joints, tendons, and soft tissues for injuries and
conditions.
Vascular Imaging: Assessing blood flow and detecting vascular conditions.
Guidance for Interventions: Assisting in procedures like biopsies and fluid drainage.
Conclusion:
Ultrasound imaging is a versatile and powerful medical tool that relies on the
propagation and reflection of high-frequency sound waves. Its non-invasiveness, real-time
imaging capabilities, and high soft tissue contrast make it an essential diagnostic modality in
various medical specialties.

Ventilator Operation: Principles and Mechanisms

Introduction: A ventilator is a critical medical device used to support patients with respiratory
failure or impaired lung function. It assists in the process of breathing by delivering oxygen
and removing carbon dioxide.

Operating Principles:
Positive Pressure Ventilation: Ventilators primarily operate on the principle of positive
pressure ventilation. This means that air (or a mixture of oxygen and air) is delivered under
positive pressure into the patient's airway.
Components of a Ventilator:
Breathing Circuit: This includes tubes that connect the ventilator to the patient. It delivers the
gas mixture and carries away exhaled gases.
Control System: This regulates parameters like pressure, volume, and timing of breaths.
Sensors and Monitors: These provide feedback on variables such as pressure, volume, and
oxygen concentration.
Microprocessor: This controls the timing and sequence of breaths based on input from sensors.
Modes of Ventilation:
Controlled Ventilation: The ventilator delivers a set number of breaths per minute, controlling
both the rate and volume of each breath.
Assist-Control Ventilation: The patient can trigger additional breaths, but the machine ensures
a minimum number of breaths per minute.
Pressure Support Ventilation: The patient initiates all breaths, and the machine provides a
boost of pressure to assist inhalation.
Monitoring and Feedback:
Flow Sensors: Measure the rate at which air is moving in and out of the patient's lungs.
Pressure Sensors: Monitor the pressure in the airway, ensuring it stays within safe limits.
Oxygen Sensors: Verify the concentration of oxygen being delivered.
Humidification and Filtration: The ventilator may include a humidification system to add
moisture to the air, preventing the drying of respiratory mucosa.
Filters remove particles and contaminants from the air before it reaches the patient's
lungs.
Alarms and Safety Measures: Ventilators are equipped with alarms to alert healthcare
providers in case of high or low pressure, low oxygen concentration, or other issues.
Backup systems, like battery power and manual ventilation capabilities, are in place to
ensure patient safety in case of power failure.
Ventilator Modes:
Volume-Controlled Ventilation: The ventilator delivers a set tidal volume with each breath,
regardless of changes in lung compliance or resistance.
Pressure-Controlled Ventilation: The ventilator maintains a set airway pressure during
inhalation, which can be more suitable for patients with variable lung compliance.
Pressure Support Ventilation: Assists the patient's spontaneous breaths by providing a
positive pressure during inhalation.
Applications:
Ventilators are crucial in various clinical scenarios, including: Intensive Care Units (ICUs):
For patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome, severe pneumonia, or post-operative
care.
Anesthesia: During surgery to support a patient's breathing under general anesthesia.
Neonatal Care Units: For premature infants or those with respiratory distress syndrome.
Conclusion:
 Ventilators are life-saving devices that deliver controlled breaths to patients with
compromised respiratory function. Understanding the physics and mechanics behind ventilator
operation is essential for healthcare professionals working in critical care settings.

Pulse Oximeter: Principles and Operation

Introduction: A pulse oximeter is a non-invasive medical device used to measure the oxygen
saturation level (SpO2) in a patient's blood. It also provides information about the heart rate.

Oxygen Saturation (SpO2): Oxygen saturation refers to the percentage of hemoglobin binding
sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that
carries oxygen. When fully saturated, it is bright red; when desaturated, it appears darker.
Light Absorption: Pulse oximeters operate on the principle of spectrophotometry, which
involves the absorption of light at specific wavelengths. They use two light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) that emit light through a translucent part of the patient's body (usually a finger).
Red and Infrared Light: The LEDs emit both red light (around 660 nm) and infrared light
(around 940 nm). Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light, while deoxygenated
hemoglobin absorbs more red light.
Detectors: Photodetectors on the opposite side of the finger measure the amount of each type
of light that passes through the tissue and reaches them.
Calculating Oxygen Saturation: The pulse oximeter compares the amount of red and infrared
light detected to determine the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin. Using
calibration curves, it calculates the oxygen saturation percentage.
Pulse Detection: In addition to oxygen saturation, pulse oximeters also measure heart rate.
They do this by detecting the pulsatile changes in blood volume in the tissue with each
heartbeat.
Signal Processing: The raw data from the photodetectors is processed by the oximeter's
microprocessor to filter out noise and movement artifacts.
Calibration and Accuracy: Pulse oximeters require periodic calibration to ensure accurate
readings. This may involve testing against known oxygen concentrations in a controlled
environment.
Limitations and Considerations:
Motion Artifact: Movement or tremors can introduce errors in readings, as they disrupt the
consistency of light absorption.
Nail Polish and Skin Pigmentation: Dark nail polish or excessive melanin in the skin can
affect the accuracy of measurements.
Low Perfusion: In patients with poor blood circulation, such as those with hypotension, the
oximeter may struggle to obtain accurate readings.
Environmental Factors: Strong ambient light or excessive motion can interfere with the
accuracy of the oximeter.
Applications:
 Pulse oximeters are widely used in various clinical settings, including:
 Hospitals and Clinics: For continuous monitoring of patients in critical care, surgery, and
general wards.
 Home Care: To monitor patients with chronic respiratory conditions like COPD.
 Sports Medicine: To monitor athletes during training and competitions.
Conclusion:
Pulse oximeters are essential medical devices that provide crucial information about a
patient's oxygenation status and heart rate. Understanding the principles of operation is
fundamental for healthcare professionals working in diverse clinical environments.