236 Human Resource Managemet

The purpose of training is to tighten up the slack,

toughen the body, and polish the spirit.
Morihei Ueshiba

Introduction
ftcr employees have becn selected for various positions in an organisation, training them f
or the specii
A rasks to which they have been assigned assumes great importance. It 1s true in many organie
betore an employee is fiuted into a harmonious working relationship with other employees, he is
training. Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for performin
ganisa
iventions ih
adequat
ming aparticua
ae
job. The major outcome of training is learning. A trainee learns ncw habits, refined skills and e Par
ful knowi
during the training that helps him improve performance. Training enables an employee
mani; Group;
to do Coldstnin
hi
his presenm ith
more ctticiently and prepare himself for a higher level job. (Lynton; Gupta; Rajamani; Group; (..
The cssential teatures of training may be stated thus:

ROY 9 Talures of Training

Increases knowledge and skills for doing a particular job; Trainino t
the gap between job needs and employee skills, knowle 0e
behaviours. dge iand
Focuses attention on the current job; It is job specific and oro
employees with specific skills. Training helps employees orovides
correct
deficiencies in their performance.
Concentrates on individual employees; Training lays emphasis
changing what employees know, how they work, their attitudes tou
their interactions with their co-workers ward
their work or or
supervisors.
Tends to be more narrowly focused and oriented toward shorttar-
perfonance concens. t tries to fix current deficit. The goal of
skill trainin
is a fairly quick improvement in workers' perfomance. ng

Training is needed to serve the following purposes: (Noe; Wexley; Quinnones et al)
Newly recruited employees require training so as to perform their tasks ettectively. Instruction, guidance
coaching help them to handle jobs competently, without any wastage.

Training is necessary to prepare existing employees for higher-level jobs (promotion).

Existing employees require refresher training so as to keep abreast of the latest developments in job operations
In the face of rapid technological changes, this is an absolute necessity.

Training is necessary when a person moves from one job to another (transfer). After training, the employe
can change jobs quickly, improve his performance levels and achieve career goals comfortably.

raining is necessary to make employees mobile and versatile. They can be placed on various jobs depending
on organisational needs.

Training is needed to bridge the gap between what the employe has and what the job demands Traing
is needed to make employees more productive and useful in the
long-run.
is
Training needed for employees gain acceptance from peers (learning job quickly and being able
to
pull their own weight is one of the best ways for them to gain acceptance).
a
m
 237
Chapter 9 Traning

T r a i n i n gv s ,
ingvs Development
s been
been referred to as teaching specific skils and behaviour. Examples of training are learning
has

rifle, to shoor foul shots in basketball and to type. It is usually reserved for people
o e n

who have to be
a i n i n g

from
some specific skills. The skills are almost always behavioural as distinct
fire
b o u g h iu po
erforming level in
prual o r n t c l l e c t u a l .

to be more general than training and more oriented to individual

needs
ment, in« ntrast, is considered
eelpme
1 isational
t oo r g a n i s a t i o n .
needs and it iS most often aimed toward management people. There is more theory
inadalituon. cation and hence less concern with specific behaviour than is the case with training
such
ed
enable people carry
ipvored
wuh

n t e nntt of development
of provide knowledge
is to and understanding that will to

L k u a l h :
the functions more effectively.
cchnical o r g a n i s a t i o n a l

development is meant for managers. Training tries to improve a specitic ski

ant for operatives and 1s a
Trauning1 development aims at
improving the total personality of an individual. Training
iob whereas
is an ongoing, continuous process. The scope of training
is on individual
paeal:whereas development is mostly
of development is on the entire work group or the organisation. Training
whereas the scope
motivation. Development is
emplovees, w h e r e a s

taken by management. lt is the result of some outside

o f initiatives current requirements of
the job and the
of internal motivation. Iraining seeks to meet the
, rhe result
mastly aims at meeting the future needs of the job and
the individual. In other words,
da whereas development
indivndua
whereas development is a proactuve process. Development
is future oriented training,
aino is a reactive process
raunun
of the employee.
the personal growth
on
husing

Iraining vs Education
to training. Training is
more general in purpose when compared
education is wider in scope and
doing a job. It is job-oriented (skill
The term
and skills of an employee while
Tthe act of increasing the knowledge the and understanding
Education, on the other hand, is process of increasing the general knowledge
karning). whose main purpose is to improve the understanding
ademplovees. It is a person-oriented, theory-based knowledge
Its primary focus is not the job of an operative.
Education
ofa particular subject or theme (conceptual learning). aim at improving the
s imparted schools or colleges and the contents of such a programme generally
through However, both have to be viewed as
alents of a person. Training is practice-based and company-specific. at harnessing the true potential of a
Both aim
are complementary and mutually supportive.
programmes that
person/employee.

Importance
ngIS an indispensable part of HR functions in every organisation now. Gone are the days when training
such as Finance, Marketing
was be fuile, waste of time, resources and money. Other departments
Considered to in a major way. Training is a
ies, l'roduction are dependent on Training and Development Department involvement and commitment.
LVtent because the payoffs are immeasurable in terms of employee growth,
t is anlmportant tool of HRM as it helps to control the attrition rate-it helps in motivating people to stay on,
it helps in the job knowledge
increasing
hddSkills and remain continually useful to the organisation; be studied under the following heads.
in employees at each level. The importance of training
can

|lessin; Morrow et al)

 238 Human Resource Management

TABLE
9.1Importance of Training
Benefits to the Business Benefits to the Employees
Trained workers can work more efficiently. Training makes an employee more useful
to a
They use machines, tools, materials in a proper
he will find employment more easily. fim.
way. is thus eliminated to a large extent.
Wastage efficient and elfHent
Training makes employees more efficient
By combining materials, tools and equipm ecth.
minimumoment
There will be fewer accidents. Training improves
the knowledge of employees regarding the use of
with
way, they can produce more with effonin a ti
machines and equipment. Hence, trained workers Training enables employees to secCure promot.
need not be put under close supervision, as they
know how to handle operations properly. Training helps an employee to mova
romouons eash
They can realise their career goals comfortaOn

Trained workers can show superior performance. organisation to another easily. He can be mO.
be more mobis
They can turn out better perfomance. They can turn and pursue career goals actively. One
out better quality goods by putting the materials, Employees can avoid mistakes, accidents on the ç
toois and equipment to good use. can handle jobs with contidence. They willhe
Training makes employees more loyal to an satisfied on their jobs. Their morale would be h no
organisation. They will be less inclined to leave the Thus, training can contribute to higher producthigh.
unit where there are growth opportunities. mistakes, greater job satisfaction and low
turnover. Also, it can enableemployees to coabu
organisational, social and technological change
training is an invaluable investment in thee
resources of an organisation. numan

A Checklist to avoid Training Pitfalls

Atnempting to teach too quickly: Trying to teach too quickly results in frustration. It is not wise
employees beyond thein learning limits. puah
Trying to tench too much: There are limits to the amount that onc can learn. It is recommended to tl
segments of the job in sequential fashion in order to develop a greater appreciation and understandino
ing o
the whole job.
Viewing all trainees as the same: All emplovees are ditterent. This must be recognised when it comes t
training. Since some workers learn faster or slower than others, these differences must be accountcd fwi
the training programme.

Not proriding time to practice: Practice makes pertect. There is no such

thing as natural-born skile
workers. Adequate practice time must be provided for employees to develop their skils.

Providing a pat on the back: It is ahways a good idea to reinforce employees during the leamning pracs
Encouragement. praise. and reward are highly recommended.
Not frightening the employee: As a supervisor. it is possible to know the job for which the employet
training so thoroughly that a new employee may teel inadequate or intimidated.

Learning Principles: The Philosophy of lraining

raining is essential tor job success. It can lead to higher production, fewer mistakes. greater job utst
and lower turnover. These benetits accrue to both the tranee and the organisation, if managers undenas
the princ1ples behind the training process. lo this end. training ettorts must invariably tollow cert

learning-oniented guidelines. (Silverman: Goldstein: Gagne)

 239
Chapter 9 Training

Modelling

someone else's behaviour. Passive class

room learning does not leave room
any tor
okeling
1sSunmply

o change people, it would be a good idea to have videotapes of people showing the
motelng We wa

haviour.The sclected cted model should provide the right kind of behaviour to be
sied
behav
behaviour is learned by modelling others. Children learn copied by others. A
human
by modelling parents and older
of

d e a l

are quite comfortable with

comfortable with the process
by the time they grow up. As experts put it. "Managers
t
hey were managed!"
mange
as
as they
the

to

nd

M o t i v e t i o n

nlace, intention to learn is important. When the employee is motivated, he pays attention
bl
learningtottake
and
presented. Motivation to learn is influenced by the answers to questions such as
said, done and
said,
beung

gwhat
Is
my job to me? How important is the information? Will learning help me progress in the
iPeople learn more quickly when the material is important and relevant to them. Learning is
nan pany nd long-lasting when the learner participates actively. Most people, for example, never torget
a n dlone-
quicker
because they took an active part in the
gSualy
a bicycle learning process!

Reinforcement

ur is rewarded, it probably will be repeated. Positive reinforcement consists of rewarding desired

a bet
Deonle avoid certain behaviours that invite criticism and punishment. A bank officer would want to
raduate course in finance, if it earns him increments and makes him eligible for further promotions.
graduate
ido a post ernal rewards (investments, praise) and the internal tewards (a feling of pride and achievement)
i t h desired behaviours compel subjects to learn properly. To be effective, the trainer must reward
ied behaviours only. If he rewards poor performance, the results may be disastrous: good performers may
based on
in frustration, accidents may go uP, productivity may sutter. The reinforcement principle is also
mie that punishment is less effective in learning than reward. Punishment is a pointer to undesirable
The
hariours. When administered, it causes pain to the employee. He may or may not repeat the mistakes.
be mild or wild. Action taken to repeal a person from undesirable action is punishment.
If
Hsrtions may
may force the trainee to modity the undesired or incorrect behaviours.
administered properly, punishment

Feedback
wants to know what
Feople learn best if reinforcement is given as soon as possible after training. Every employee
rails. The
eapected of him and how well he is doing. If he is off the track, somebody must put him back on the
ctros in such cases must be rectified immediately. The trainee after learning the right behaviour is motivated to
things in a 'right' way and earn the associated rewards. Positive feedback (showing the trainee the right way

doing things) is to be preferred to negative feedback (telling the trainee that he is not correct) when we want

to change behaviour.

Spaced Practice
karning
t the o
kCS place easily if the practice sessions are spread over a period of time. New employees learn better
For
Ton programme is spread over a two or three day period, instead of covering it all in one day.
the way schools ask the kids to say the
s , massed practice is usually more effective. Imagine the
Can you memorise a long poem by learning only one line per day? You tend to torget
ud.
poem by the time you reach the last stanza. For 'acquiring' skills as stated by Mathis and
 240HmanResource Management
Jackson. spaced practice is usually the best. This incremental approach to skill acqusition minimises
ses
tatigue that deters learning.
the physac

WholeWhole Learning
The concept of whole learning suggests that employees learn better if the job information is evni
entire logical process. so that they can see how the various actions fit together into the 'big pictsexplain
overview of what the trainee would be doing on the job should be given top priority, it learning has icture. Abroad
to take plac
quickly. Rescarch studies have also indicated that it is more etticient to practice a whole task all
al arat once
than trying to master the various components of the task at different intervals.
tathe
Active Practice
Practice makes a man perfect': so said Bacon. To be a swimmer. you should plunge into water instead of.
reading about swimming or looking at films of the worlds best swimmers. Learning is enhanced whenp
d be
are provided ample opportunities to repeat the task. For maximum benefit, practice sessions should be dic.
distrnbutad
Over timne.

Applicability of Training
raining should be as real as possible so that trainees can successfully transfer the new knowledge
jobs. The training situations should be set up so that trainees can visualise- and identify with their
ypes of situations they can come across on the job.
the

Environment
Cinally environment plays a major role in training. It is natural that workers who are exposed to trainine i
comfortable environments with adequate, well spaced rest periods are more likely to learn than emploven
whose training conditions are less than ideal. Generally speaking, learning is very fast at the beginning. Thereafte
the pace of learning slows down as opportunities for improvement taper oft.

Areas of Iraining
The Arcas of Training in which training is offered may be clasiticd into the following categories:

Knowledge
Here the trainee learns about a set of rules and regulations about the job, the staff and the products or servika
oftered by the company. The aim is to make the new employee fully aware of what goes on inside and outsude
the companv

Technical Skills
The emplovee is taught a specific skill (e.g.. operating a machine, handling computer etc.) so that be
acquire that skill and contribute meaningfully
 241
Chapter 9 Tranng

Social Skills

made to lean about himself and others, and to develop a right mental attitude towards the job.
T h ec m p l o y *

the company. Ihe prinipal focus is on teaching the employee how to be a team member ana B
Aguesa n d

ahead

Techniques

rhe application of knowledge and skill to various on-the-job situations.

T h i s i n v o l v e s

skills and knowledge of employees, training aims at moulding employee attitudes:

to improving the
ddirion
in properly. training programme will go long way in obtaining employee loyalty, 5Support
a dministeredto properly,
adminstered
aa a
When company activities.
and commitment

ROY4.2 Major ljeclves of Traniny aud Devekognent Division

in an Urganisation
of training and development division is to make sure
The principal objective
availability the of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization. In addition
to that, there are four other objectives: Individual, Organizational, Functional, and
Societal.
Individual Objectives: Help employees in achieving their personal goals, which
in tum enhance the individual contribution to the organization.
Organizational Objectives: Assist the organization with its primary objective by
TRAINING& bringing individual effectiveness
Functional Objectives: Maintain the department's contribution at a level suitable
DEVELOPMEND
to the organization's needs.
Societal Objectives: Ensure that an organization is ethically and socially
responsible to the needs and challenges of the society.
Source: naukrihub.com

lypes of Training
approaches to training. We focus here on the types of training that are commonly employed
There are many
in present-day organisations. (Zalman; Smith)
Seills training: This type of training is most common in organisations. The process here is fairly simple.
The need for training in basic skills (such as reading, writing, computing, speaking., listening, problem
of a team, leading others) is identified
solving, managing oneself, knowing how to learn, working as part
content is developed to meer those
through assessment. Specific training objectives are set and training
objectives. Several methods are available for imparting these basic skills in modern organisations (such
as

lectures, apprenticeship, on-the-job, coaching, etc.). Before employing these methods, managers should:

explain how the training will help the traines in their jobs.

relate the training to the trainees' goals.

and use these as a resource.
respect and consider participant responses
242 Human Kesource Management

cnoourage trainees to learn by dong

Y teedback on progress toward meeting learning objcctives.

Refresher rainng Rapid changes in technology may force companies to go in for this kind.c
organising short term courses which incorporate the latest developments in a particular fieli ini
mav koep its emplovces up-to-date and ready to take on cmerging challenges. It is cond
intervals by taking the help of outside consultants who specialise in a particular descriptiv Aucted t tepyiar
Crme fnctronal raining: Cross functional Training involves training cmployees to perform
areas other than their assigned job. Therc are nmany approaches to cross functional trainine op
ati,
functional area with a broader perspective than he w \ob rotarn
can be used provide
to

havc Departments can

a manager in o n e
cxehange pcrsonnel for a certain period so that cach employee unde.. he would otherw
other departments arc functioning. High pertorming workers can act as peer trainers and hel."hd
devclop skills in another arca of operation. (Buchen; Messner) Cross-functional traininunplo
toliowing henetits to an organisation (and the workers as well): (1) Workers gain rich experienc in he
ha
diverse johs they become more adaptable and versatile. (2) They can better engineer theirowndin
paths 3 Thev not only know their job well but also understand how others are able to perform
different set of constraints. (4) A broader perspective increases workers' understanding off the
the busin
business
reduces the need for supervision. (5) When workers can fill in for other workers who are absent,t, it i and
to use flexiblc scheduling. which is increasingly in demand as more employees want to spend motie
with their families. Eli Lilly and Company (India), for example, encourages cross-functional movem e
make the organisation cqually attractive to both specialists and generalists.

BOYA3 Crusstunctional Training: Indian Experiences

Thermax: At Thermax (over 1200 employees nearly Rs. 600 crore
tumover
6 per cent attrition rate) high-potential individuals are given
greater
exposure, high visibility and asked to chart out a career vision through an
ongoing dialogue.
GCPL: Godrej Consumer Products Ltd's (1052 employees, nearly Rs.
500 crore sales) talent management system allows bright
employees to
acquire a wide variety of skills through job rotation (e.g., sales systems,
project management skills, IT skills, Team building skills etc.). Outstanding
performers get salary increase instantaneously.
Sapient Corporation: (914 employees with over $ 202 million global sales)
At Sapient employees work on 48-50 projects at any given time. Some of
these are executed entirely by the local
employees from their Gurgaon
and Bangalore offices.
Johnson & Johnson: (1419 employees with over $ 41,000 million
global
sales) J&J constantly encourages its employees to upgrade their sKils
and knowledge through short-term programmes at institutes like the IMS,
XLRI etc. apart from rotating on employees tasks.
challenging
Monsanto India: (354 employees with nearly $ 5,000
Monsanto sets stiff targets for
global sales)
employees, but trains employees w
rare rigour so that they get a fair shot at those. People identified as
tuu
leaders are given internal international
positions.
P&G: (Over Rs. 750 crore sales and de,
powerful brands like VickS, relies
Ariel, Pantene, Whisper, Pampers, Head and Shoulders,
on the promote-from-within philosophy'. etc.) ut of
It hires freshers straignt u day
B-school, trains and empowers them to handle challenging jobs
1. Says a new recruit from IIM Ahmedabad: "1 am two months o1d the
in

company and already handling a new brand launch".

Source: BT-HewittStudy, 2003: BT-Mercer-TNS Study, 2004; Grow Talent Study, B. Wond,
6.12.2004
 243
Chapter 9 Training

tasks and Content tasks

ine: Team training generally covers two areas: content group processes.
Team.
teams goalsforsuch as cost control and
problem solving. Group processes reflect the way members
example, how they interact with cach othe, how they sort out differences, how
team
as a
new employees to
func
fhunctuon
nate etc. Companies are investing heavy amounts, nowadays, in training

hey h
cach other and to cooperate. They are using outdoor experiential training techniques to develop
isten

camworkand and team spirit among their cmployees (such as scaling a mountain, preparing recipes for
a restaurant, sailing through uncharted waters, crossing a jungle, etc.). The training basically
and
ollht on () how members should communicate with each other (ii) how they have to cooperate
should deal with conflictful situations (iv) how they should find their way, using
get ahcad (ii) how they
ho
ive wisdom and. experience to good advantage. (Buchen)
their
reativitytraning Companies like Mudra Communications. Titan Industries, Wipro encourage
devise unexpected
employees to think unconventionally, break the rules, take risks, go out of the box and
to thint

(Hequet: Kawatra; Solomon)

solutions.

rainers often tocus on three things:

In ativiry training,
to (i) identity
the
Breaking away: In
order to break away from restrictions, the trainee is expected
his own thinking (ii) define the boundaries within which he
is working
dominant ideas influencing
ii) bring the assumptions out into the open and challenge everything.

newideas: lo generate new ideas, the trainee should open up his mind;
look problem at the
(h) Generate should allow
and list as many alternative approaches as possible. The trainee
from all possible angles articles, books,
over alternatives freely, expose himself to new influences (people,
his mind to wander with other
cross fertilization of ideas
situations), switch over from one perspective to another, arrange
and analogies to spark off ideas.
people use

promote creative thinking, the trainee

should not try to kill off ideas too
(c)Delayingjudgement: To He should
held back until he is able to generate as many ideas as possible.
quickly; they should be
number of ideas from a group of people in
allow ideas to grow a little. Brainstorming (getting large
a

in generating as many ideas as possible without pausing to

evaluate them.
a short time) often helps
cross fertilizing ideas and getting away trom
It helps in releasing ideas, overcoming inhibitions,
patterned thinking.

Diversiny Training Diversity training considers all workplace race. gender,

of the diverse dimensions in the
while designing a training programme.
age, disabilities, lifestyles, culture, education, ideas and backgrounds
It aims to create better cross-cultural sensitivity with the aim of fostering more harmonious and fruitful
covers rwo things: (i) awareness building,
working relationships among a firms employees. The programme which offers the
which helps employees appreciate the key benefits of diversity, and (iü) skill building,
knowledge, skills and abilities required for working with people having varied backgrounds. (Jordan; Day)
Literacy Training: Inability to write, speak and work well with others could often come in the way of discharging
duties, especially at the lower levels. Workers, in such situations, may fail to understand safety messages,
of to rules, and commit avoidable mistakes.
Functional illiteracy (low skill
the
Ppreciate importance sticking
evel in a particular content area) may be a serious impediment to a firms productiviry and competitiveness.
runctional literacy programmes focus on the basic skills required to perform a job adequately and capitalize
on most workers motivation to get help in a particular area. Tutorial programmes, home asignments, reading
and wriding exercises, simple mathematical tests, etc., are generally used in all company in-house programmes
meant to improve the literacy levels of employees with weak reading, writing or arithmetic skill.

Pentation Training In orientation training, new hires get a first hand view of what the company stands
r how the work is caried out and how to get along with olleagues. In short, 'they learn the ropes, the
thic ways of doing things in a proper manner. When a new employee is from a different country and
t h i s initial training is especially important in helping new employees àdjust in the company.
 .44 Human hesure Aenaceme nt

Carilon itei Connpang

Orienlatiun Truininy al lit:
BY94
Carllon Hotel company
companyRitz nfuses
uring orientation the according to Horst Se
D
fomer
employees with
the company's "soul
CO0, President
and chairman. vice
During Orientation,
to he company's sucC6seOul
Schulhh
was essential
explain that every employee the roons clean, and resporhey
in a pleasure, keop th
didn't make checkingthe company would
suffer. In comparison, if Schs
every need, After ordy
guests' little difforence.
a general
show up one day for
work, it made very
offers specific training to new hires through f o
programme, the company Those who are best doin t
in each job category.
experienced employees that overyone needs to understar
would develop a set of principles
job ali employees line up to memorihd
apply. For thefirst 10 minutes of each day,
constantly remirnding employees whaat
company's values and principles. By them habits that will serve the guest the
strives to achieve, it teaches
ests and
company
the company well!
Worklorce, April 2002
Source: C. Lachnit, "Hire right: Do it the Aitz Way"

A Systematic Approach to Training

and evaluated in a systematic way. Unplannad
Craining is most eftective when it is planned, implemented
T uncoordinated and haphazard training efforts greatly reduce the learning that can be expected. Table g
training. (Moore; Rossett; Thacker)
shows three major components of a systematic approach to

TABLE
A Systematic Approach to Training
9.2
1. Assessment 2. Implementation 3. Evaluation

Determine training needs Select training methods Compare training outcomes

against criteria
ldentify training objectives Conduct training

Training Needs Assessment

Training efforts must aim at meeting the requirements of the organisation (long-term) and the individul
employees (short-term). This involves finding answers to questions ich as: Whether training is needed? If yes,
where is it needed? Which training is needed? etc. Once we identify training gaps within the organisation, It
becomes easy to design an appropriate training programme. Training needs can be identified through the
following types of analysis, as shown in Table 9.3.
1.
Organisational analysis: It involves a study of the entire organisation in terms of its
the utilisation of these resources, in order to objectives, its resourto
achieve stated objectives and its interaction
environment. The pattern w
important elements that are
closely examined in this connection are:
(i) Analysis of objectives: This is a
study of short-term and long-term objectives and the strategies follo
wed
at various levels these
to meet
objectives.
 Training 245
Chapter 9

il Resource uilusaton analysis: How the various organisational resources (human, physical and financial)
()
are put to use is the main tocus of this study. The contributions of various departments are also

Cxamined by cstablishing etficiency indices for each unit. This is done to find out comparative labour
costs, whcther a unit is undermanned or over-manned.

(i) invironmental scanning: Here the economic, political, socio-cultural and technological environment
of the organisation is exanmined.

(iv) Orgamisational clmate analysis: The climate of an organisation speaks about the attitudes of members
towards work, company policies, supervisors, etc. Absenteeism, turnover ratios generaly retlect the
pevailing enployec attitudes. These can be used to find out whether training efforts have improved
the overall limate within the company or not.

TABLE
Data Sources used in Training Needs Assessment
9.3
Organisational Analysis Task Analysis Person Analysis
Organisational goals and objectives Job descriptions Performance data or appraisals
Personnel inventories Job specifications Work sampling
Skils inventories Performance standards Interviews

Organisational climate analysis Performing the job Questionnaires

Efficiency indexes Work sampling Tests (KASOCs)
Changes in systems or subsystems Reviewing literature on the Customer/employee attitude
(e.g., equipment) job surveys
Management requests Asking questions about the Training progress
job
Exit interviews Training committees Rating scales

MBO or work planning systems Analysis of operating CIT

problems
Customer survey/satisfaction data Diaries
Devised situations (e.g., role play)
Assessment centers
MBO or work planning systems
Source: ML Moore and P. Dutton, Training needs analysis: Review and Critique. Academy of Management Review, 3, 1978

2. lask or role analysis: "This is a detailed examination of a job, its components, its various operations and
conditions undor which it has to be performed. The focus here is on the roles played by an individual and
the training needed to perform such roles. The whole exercise is meant to find out how the various tasks
have to be performed and what kind of skills, knowledge, attitudes are needed to meet the job needs.
Questionnaires, interviews, reports, tests, observation and other methods are generally used to collect job
telated infornmation from time to-time. After collecting the information, an appropriate training programme
may be designed. paying attention to () pertormance standards required of employees, (ii) the tasks they
have to discharge. (ii) rhe methods they will employ on the job and (iv) how they have learned such
methods. etc.
sonanalysis: Here the focus is on the individual in a given job. There are three issues to be resolved
through manpower analvsis. First, we try to find out whether performance is satisfactory and training is
246 Human Resource Management
trained and the specific areas

required. Second,
whether the employee is capable of being
performers (who
can improve with teauh which aning
whether poor
r
1S needed. Finally, we necd to state

be replaced by those who can do the job. Other options to

perforng wasudhniny a
inputs)
modifications
on the job
in the
ned to

job or processes
should also be
looked into.

in collecting the required

Personal

information
observation,
and select Sormicanceular iteravinienng
pars
tests help
Supervisory reports, diagnostic individual workers
to improve the
performance of
options that try
efforts must continuously
monitor and
coord1nate the three kind.

objectives, task and

kinds ot analye
To be effective, training
that meets the company's
described above. An appropriate
needs may then be introduced.
programme
Further, the training
needs have to be prioritised
use in a proper way.
so thar
hat the mpilinmitedoye
are put to
resources
allocated to fill training gaps
that are

TABLE Needs' Assessment

Model Form for Conducting a Tralning
9.4
Form
Conducting a Needs Assessment: A Model
******-- Title
Job
- -----.---.
Date
Interviewer(s)
on Interviewee
Part I: Background Information
Years in the company
Years on the Job--- ----------------.

Educational/Technical

------ -~~-**----***-***********
Qualifications
Part I: Organisational Analysis
?
1. In your view, what are the purposes of training
in your firm serve the above purposes?
2. Do you think the current training programmes
regarding training in your firm?
3. What do you think would be the responses of your colleagues
detail.
Do you think trainees are motivated to attend training? Explain
in
4.
Do you think employees in your firm offer any resistance to training? Please advance suggestions to
5.
minimise this resistance.
What positive consequences are associated with successful conpletion of training? (Like increased
5.
pay, recognition, greater promotional opportunities) Are there any negative consequences associated
with training? (like loss of production, loss of status among co-workers)
Do your think it is difficult for trainees to apply the skils they leamed in training once they return to the
7
job? Why or why not?
8. For training programmes you have attended, are you asked to provide your reactions to the
programme?Are you given training tests before and after training to assessa change in your training?
If so, descnbe the types of measures that are used to assess your reactions and learning
Part l: Task and Person Analysis
9 Descnibe the major duties of your job. Rank them in terms of importance (1= most important)
10 Think about a person who is very etfective at your job. What kr.owledge, skills or abilities does this
person possess? Can these skills be enhanced through training? If yes, explain the type of training
that might be helptul.
11 Do you foresee any additional job demands being added to the current responsibilities in your obn
the next 5 years or so? f yes, what additonal skills or abilites will be
required to meet these demands
 Training 247
Chapter 9

ldentily Training Objectives

nceds are identiticd, objectives should be set to begin meeting these needs.
Oncc training

As Figure 9.1 9,1 suggests, traning objectives can be of threc types. The most basic training takes place through
ntaton programmes.
The second type of iraining objective is problem solving. The focus is on solving a
ofte aroblem instead of providing general information about a problem area. The final objective is innovation.
emphasis is on changing the mind set of workers, supervisors and executives working at various levels.
cmphasis
the
Here

OBJECTIVES

Innovative Problems Solving Regular

Anticipating problems Training clerks to Orientation
before they occur reduce complaints Recurring training of
Team building Training supervisors interviewers
sessions with the in communications Refresher courses on

departments to reduce grievances safety procedures

FIGURE
9.1 Objectives of Training

Iraining Methods

raining methods are usually classified by job training is provided when

the location of instruction. On the
the workers are taught relevant knowledge, skills and abilities at the actual workplace: off-the-job trainin
on the other hand. requires that traines learn at a location other than the real workspot. Some of the widely
used training methods are listed below:

On-the-job Training Methods

JobInstruction Training (JIT)

The JIT method (developed during World War II) is a four-step instructional process involving preparation.
presentation, performance try out and follow up. It is used primarily to teach workers how to do their current
jobs. A trainer, supervisor or co-worker acts as the coach. The four steps followed in the ]IT methods are:
Present Overview: The trainee receives an overview of the job, its purpose and its desired outcomes, with
a clear focus on the relevance of training
Demonstrate and Show the way: The trainer demonstrates the job in order to give the employee a model to
copy. The trainer shows a right way to handle the job.

Copy and handle the job independently: Next, the employee is permitted to copy the trainer's way
Demonstrations by the trainer and practice by the trainee are repeated until the trainee masters the right
way to handle the job.
Folow-up: In this step, the trainer checks the trainee's job frequently after the training programme is over
to
prevent bad work habits from developing.
 248 Human Kesource NManagement

TABLE
9.5 Job Instucton Training
Demerits
Merits
The trainee should be as good as the
and observation. If the trainer is not good, transfero.dier
Trainee leams tast through practice
knowledge and skills will be p0or. rence
While leaming, trainee may damage equipr
it does notrequire any special waste materials, cause accidents f r e t
It is economical as
mistakes can be corrected immediately.
settings. Also, Experienced workers cannot us
confidence quickly as he does
the
T h e trainee gains machinery while it is being used for
work himself in actual setting with help from supervisor. raining
unskilled and semi-skilled jobs
t is most suitable for
operations are simple; easy to explain
where the job
of time.
and demonstrate within a short span

Coaching immediate supervisors. It invol.

is daily
kind oftraining and feedback given to employees by
Coaching a

continuous process of learning by doing. It may

be defined as an informal, unplanned training and devel
pment
and In coaching, the supervisor explains things and answers question.
Lons,
activiy provided by supervisors peers. ne
he offers a model tor trainees to copys conducts lot of
throws light on why things are done the way they are;
are agreed upon and the
trainee iS given enough aurho
decision making meetings with trainees; procedures
be a taxing job in that the coach mav.
horiy
to make divisions and even
commit mistakes. Of course, coaching can not
a full day's work may ber
the learner in systematic way. Sometimes, doing more
possess requisite skills to guide a

than purting the learner on track.

important
When to use coaching usefully?
could be put good use when:
Coaching to

An employee demonstrates a new competency.

An employee expresses interest in a different job within the organisation.

An employee seeks feedback.

An employee is expressing low morale, violating company policies or practices or having performance

problems.
An employee needs help with a new skill following a formal training programme.

Effective working, obviously, requires patience and communication skills. It involves:

explaining appropriate ways of doing things.

making clear why actions were taken.

stating observations accurately.

offering possible alternatives/suggestions.

following up.
Mentoring
entoring is a relationship in which a senior manager in an organisation assumes the responsibiliy for groom
oming
om
unior
person. Technical, interpersonal and political skills are generally conveyed in such a relationshipfro
 252 Human Resource Manegement

Of-the-Job Methods
ndcr this method ot training. the traincc is separated from the job situation and his attention isis ffocused upon
lcarning thc material related to his future job pertormance. Since the traince is not distracted by job t.
he can tocus his entire oncentration on lcarning the job rather than spending his time in performi. e
IS an opportunin tor treedom of eapression for the trainees. OH-the-job training methods arc as f . ments,
Th
ollows. here
Testnbule raining: In this method. actual work conditions are simulated in a class room. Mat.
and oquipment those that are used in actual job performance are also used in the training ' ,f
This t
training is commonly used for training personnel for clerical and semi-skilled jobs. The duratiPeof
tion
training ranges trom a few days to a few wecks. Theory can be related to practice in this method t h i

Role pleyimg: It is detined as a method of human interaction that involves realistic behaviour in iman
siruations. This method of training involves action, doing and practice. The participants play the naginary
certain characters. such as the production manager mechanical engineer, superintendents, maint role
enginers. quality control inspectors, foreman, workers and the like. This method is mostly ised intenand
used for
developing interpersonal interactions and relations.
Lerur method: The lecture is a traditional and direct method of instruction. The instructor organice.
material and gives it to a group of rainees in the form of a talk. To be effective, the lecture must mot the
and create interest among the trainees. An advantage of lecture method is that it is direct and can he
for a large group of trainees. Thus, costs and time involved are reduced. The major limitation of the leesed
method is that it does not provide for transfer of training effectively. ecrure

Conferenceldiscussion approach: In this method, the trainer delivers a lecture and involves the trainee in
in a
discussion so that his doubrs about the job get clarified. When big organisations use this
method, e
trainer uses audio-visual aids such as blackboards, mock-ups and slides; in some cases the lectures
h
are
videotaped or audio taped. Even the trainee's presentation can be taped for self-confrontation ad
self-assessment. The conference is, thus, a group-centred approach where there is a clarification of ideat
communication of procedures and standards to the trainees. Those individuals who have a general educational
background and whatever specific skils are required such as typing, shorthand, ofice equipment operation
filing, indexing, recording, etc. - may be provided with specific instructions to handle their respective

jobs.
Programmed instruction: This method has become popular in recent years. The subject-matter to be
learned is presented in a series of carefully planned sequential units. These units are
arranged from simple
to more complex levels of instruction. The trainee goes through these units by answering questions or
filling the blanks. This method is, thus, expensive and time-consuming.
6. Virtual Orzanisations and E-Learning: The virtual organisation is a temporary nerwork of companies that
come
together quickly to exploit fast changing opportunities. Partners in a virtual organisation generaly
share costs, skills and access to international markets. Each
partner contributes to the virtual organisation
what it is best at-its core capabilities. In many high tech industries, virtual organisations rely heavily on
internal computer networks or even the Internet to provide instantaneous communications and access to
people who may be in many different locations, perhaps even around the world. Speed, agility and tast
response are the greatest benefits of going virtual. To cross fertilize ideas and to gain from an
experienced
partner specializing in a core area, virtual class rooms have gained currency in recent times. A virtual cias
room
employs special collaboration software
enable multiple remote learners, using their PCs or lapro
to
to
participate in live audio and visual
discussions, communicate via written text and learn via content su
as
power point presentations. Other E-learning methods include training delivered
or internet, satellite
by CD-ROM, intranet
broadcasts and digital collaboration between
partners willing to learn from each on
Intormation provided may vary from a
single needed fact or procedure, to a module on a narrow top to
a broader
training course, to a full university degree. Many e-learning resources are
aced
entirely selrpa
 S2 luman Kevoune Management

Off-the-Job Methods
Under this method ot traning, the trance is separated from the job situation and his attenti0n
learnng the material telated to his future jolb perfornmance. Since the rainee is not distracted by i
(wed pon
"

iQIgwerm.enThett e
he can tous his entire concentration on learning the job rather than spending his time in perfori
is an opportnity for frecdom of expression for the trainees. Off-the-job uraining methods are as

Vestibule raining: ln this method, actual work conditions are simulated in a class room ollows
and cquipmenm those that are used in actual job performance are also used in the trainine Mate
taining is ommonly used for training personnel for clerical and semi-skilled jobs. The d
taning ranges from a few days to a few weeks. Theory can be related to practice in this me duration of
Nole playine lt is defined as a method of human interaction that involves realistic behaviour in
thod. hi
Situattons. This method of training involves action, doing and practice. The participants plav w.ag
lay the gnary
ccrtain characters, such as the production manager, mechanical engineer, superintendents, ma role «f
cngncers, quality control inspectors, foreman, workers and the like. This method is mostw
developing interpersonal interactions and relations. used ot
3. Lecture method: The lecture is a traditional and direct method of instruction. The
instructor orp.
material and gives it to a group of trainces in the form of a talk. To be effective, the lecture muE rganises
and create interest among the trainees. An advantage of lecture method is that it is direct and can e
tor be
a large group of trainces. Thus, costs and time involved are reduced. The major limitation ofthe
method is that it does not provide for transfer of training
efttectively. lecture
Conferenceldiscussion approach: In this method, the trainer delivers a lecture and involves the trainc.
inee i
discussion so that his doubts about the job get clarified. When big organisations use this metho
trainer audio-visual aids such as blackboards, mock-ups and slides; in some cases the lectures, the
uses

videotaped or audio taped. Even the trainee's presentation can be taped tor self-confrontation atea
self-assessment. The conference is, thus, a group-centred approach where there is a clarification ofi
communication of procedures and standards to the traines. Those individuals who have a general educatio
background and whatever specific skills are required such as typing, shorthand, oftice equipment operi
iling. indexing, recording. etc. - may be provided with spccific instructions to handle their respective

jobs.
. Programmed instruction: This method has become popular in recent years. The subject matter to be
learned is presented in a series of carcfully planned scquential units. These units are arranged from simple
to more complex levels of instruction. The trainee goes through these units by answering questionsor
filling the blanks. This method is, thus, expensive and time-consuming.
. Virtual Oganisations and E-Learning: The virtual organisation is a temporary network of companies thar
come together quickly to exploit fast changing opportunities. Partners in a virtual organisation generall
share costs, skills and acces to international markets. Each partner contributes to the virtual organisation
what it is best at-its core capabilities. In many high tech industries, virtual organisations rely heavily on
internal computer nerworks or even the Internet to provide instantaneous communications and access to
people who may be in many different locations, perhaps even around the world. Speced, agility and tat
response are the greatest benefits of going virtual. To cross fertilize ideas and to gain from an expericncct
partner specializing in a core area. virtual class rooms have gained currency in recent times. A virtual as

room employs special collaboration software t o enable multiple remote learners, using their PCs or laptp
to participate in live audio and visual discussions, communicate via written text and learn via content
as power point presentations. Other E-learning methods include training delivered by CD ROM intranr
ochet
or internet satellite broadcasts and digital collaboration berween partners will1ng to learn trom caxh ot
ntormatikon provided may vary from a single needed fact or procdure, to a module on nartom ti
bruader tTaining course,. to a full university degree Many c -l e a r n i n g r e o u r . e s are cntirely elt f
 raning 253
Chapter 9

ecs to initiate and pursue training when they requirc it and when they really find time
/NTITiE Cmplo

arning courses have set start and end dates and interactivity with an instructor and
c-lear
dsCS,

7 2o
C tt
h ie
m re s c l a s s m a e
1ates. In a synchronous e-learning programmes, as mentioned above, all participants
in
discussion groups or attend broadcasts in a virtual class room at the same time.
on
to.
rhc American Society for Iraining and Development (ASTD). nearly ten percent of training
7muNt

t h e Ame
to
4.2nding

an
irms tak
tirmstakes place through Internet. Full fledged learning portals satisfy employee training
1
Amcri
yuirements n
n companies like FedEx. Hewlett-Packard. Delta Airlines etc. FedEx has, in fact, tied up
an e-lcarning portal. to provide its employees a choice of800 short courses on a wide variery
t could help
could help an
an employee grow trom time to time. ICICI, too, has over 200 e-learning
that
wps aumed at retining the skills and improving the knowledge of its employees working at various
gTamms
(radrej Group has taken a stake in Personalitrec Academy Limited in 2002. Personalitree is a
The
k s

evarsity providing onlinc soft skills training. lt offers highly interactive training modules in
t a s tg n o w i n g

t skills
munication, lateral thinking. public speaking and creativity, all applied to the business
s like c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,

Personalitree has rich and interactive soft-skills training material, created under the guidance of
.
hthe
otthe
finest trainers and academics in the country and overseas, including -Dr Bala V Balachandran,
Pradip Khandwalla. Dr Dr M B Athreya, Mr Shiv Khera and Dr Nitin Nohria.

F-Acarning allows inc allows trainees to improve their skills and knowledge at their own comfortable pace. The trainee
ates actively and is able to upgrade skils in a time-bound manner. Of course, e-training requires
and
management support, uninterrupted internet access, investments in establishing learning portals
utable for imparting behavioural skills to trainees. Technology barriers like bandwidth will restrict
not.
the efectiveness of e-earning. Learning effectiveness might never match the level of clasroom
hamper
time.
tor a long
hriourally Experienced Training Some training programmes focus on emotional and behavioural learning.
employees can learn about behaviour by role playing in which the role players attempt to act their
Here
Tin respect of a case, as they would behave in a real-life situation. Business games, cases, incidents,
part
Oup discussions and short assignments are also used in behaviourally-experienced learning methods.
ensitviry training or laboratory training is an example of a method used for emotional learning. The focus
of experiential methods is on achieving, through group processes, a better understanding of oneself and
Others. These are discussed elaborately in the section covering Executive Development Programmes.

Evluation of a Iraining Programme

T'raining Evaluation checks whether training has had the desired impact or not. It also tries to ensure whether
I andidates are able to implement their learning in their respective workplaces or not. The process of training
aluation has been defined as "any attempt to obtain information on the ffects of training performance and to
aESs the value of training in the light of that information." Training evaluation helps in offering feedback to the
andates by defining the objectives and linking it to learning outcomes It helps in finding the relationship
tcn acquired knowledge, transfer of knowledge at the workplace and training. It helps in controlling the
ning programnme because if the training is not effective, then it can be dealt with accordingly It helps in
etmining that whether the actual outcomes are aligned with the expected outcomes.

Process of Training Evaluation

BeorFranimg:
e The learner's skills and knowledge are assessed before the training programme. During the start
Candidates generally perceive it as a waste of resources because at most of the times candidates are
i objectives and learning outcomes of the programme. Once aware, they are asked to give
ni s on the methods used and whether those methods confirm to the candidates preferences and
style.
 dRenolder
in
towards the inputs received,
orientatio
n
a
training programme.
training
andA realisation of its
real
objectives.
close
interaction with Factors such active as
of
amount o f
The other participation,
invested by the trainees. Several gains from the training participants etc would positive
facilitat ansfer
not very diffic :cult to recount some of these: factors, of would bedirectly
How course, affect the
trainee's proportionate
to the
r e c e i v e
the inputs and ho
nuts and how actively he enthusiastically
he learning process and it is
exchanges notes with other participates, and how positively he would
iit.
Utimately, s the trainee who is
going participants determines.
timatc formation and
a and wol
to be
tO
work habits
transtormation
major a main
beneficiary of training. When attitudes
undergo improve, the trainee benefits change, behaviours
immensely.
Training Scenario in Indian Industry
ndian organisations have realized the
ost
importance of training-as a vital HR function and as
M ndisvensable motivational tool-and are investing their time, money and resources so as to attract talent.
Retail-FMCG sector, there is chronic shortage of trainers as well as skilled workers. Industry majors feel
an

that the situation is likely to continue for a while. Most B-schools have stared courses in Retail Managenment,
258 Human Resource Management

industry majors with the R. and

Management, Brand Management etc in collaboration
as
Logistics
sector begins to balloon to gigantic size--expected to be a S200-250 billion industry by 2016
steps should pave the way for a major
reversal of trend in the industry. The Banking and Insurance 016-theseFM baby
the verge of a major change in the days ahead. The entry of foreign majors in insurance sector-ICIC
On
HDFC Standard Life Insurance; TATA AIG General Insurance; Bajaj Allianz, etc.-has virtuallvmb
com
with courses aimed developing interpersonal, networking and comm.Pl
many B-schools to come out
skills. The market in Telecom sector is estimated to touch Rs. 500-700 crore in the days ahead n
For example, BSNL alone spends
ahead. Many top
a huge amount on training and development.
players spending
150 crore on Training and Development of its employees through the Advanced Level Telecomm more th
are

Bharti have also stepped into thison

Training Centre and 43 other regional training institutes. Reliance,
big way Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology: Bharti Sch
Telecommunication Technology and Management. With the increase in competition, availability of huge- ol of
of information through internet, magazines, newspapers, TV, etc., and increased awareness among custo mount
the demand to impart proper training in non-technological areas like customer care and marketing has incr
The Hospitality Sector is facing shortage of skilled chefs and experienced managers.

TABLE
9.9 Personal and Environment Factors of Tralning

Environmental Factors
Personal Factors
Relationship with colleagues and subordinates
Family Situation
Personal Problems Training team
Relation between the training program and Trainer team
personal objective Training objective
Level of self esteem Content of training
Benefits expected from training Training design i.e. methods, tech niques, and
Comfort level with the trainer strategies
Environment in the program
Learning style of trainee
KSA of trainee Compositon of training group
.Intrastructure ie. eating tacilites, tea/coffee breaks
Previous training experiences
Desire for professional growth and development

people management,
such viable skills, business
insights,
Managers require huge range of competencies
as.

in order in this sector. In addition

analytic skills, succession planning. and development
resource to
get success

trained Business Etiquettes, Courtesy, and Business Communication.

to that, employees are not enough
on

must have right attutude, tolerance, and listening skils

Hospitality is all about handling people. So an employee to
in order to move up the hierarchy. There is still a long way go to inculcate good public relation, interperona
skills. With the increase in competition due to the coming up ot major players like four Seasons. Shangr-La

Aman Resorts, etc. the need to train employees has increased more than ever before. The major players are now

their Communication. Dning

strategising to increase the turnover of the customers by training employees on

till recently and epeted

and Business etiquettes. etc. The Indian IT sector has witnessed phenomenal growth is

2020 according NASSCOM.

to generate nearly 4 million jobs by to

According to the recent review by Harvard Business Review. there is a direct link berween training investm
investment had hage
ot thecompanies and the market capitalization. Those companies with higher training traitis
market capitalization. It clearly indicates that the companies which have successtully implemented
programs have been able to deliver customer goals with efiective results. It shows that good trainng reu
enhancement of individual performance. which in turn. helps the organization in achieving its buunes
Training is a tool that an help in gaining competitive advantage in terms of human rexource With the
che
investment bv IT companies in the development of their employees many companies have now tartr
own lcarning centers As an cxample. Sun has its own training department Accenture has Internet hase
 259
Chapter 9 Training
the name ot
name of "My Learning that offers access to its vast learning its nies are
investing in both the technical training, which has always been an resources
to
essential part in IT industry, as well as in employees. Opa
1anagerial skills development. Companies now kept aside 3-5% of revenue for
man

training
mple, some of the major players like Tata Elxsi and Acenture are allocating 7% and 3%programmes
respectively ot tne
company's overall revenue (naukrihub.com).

Banks. Insurance Companies, Public Sector Units (PSUs)-such as BHEL, SAIL, BEL, Hindustan Aeronautics
Ltd- l'etroleum companies and IT companies have their own dedicated training centres-with a separate
campus and training for training their employees. Examples include the Tata Management Training Centre,
[nfosys Academy, Indian Ol Institute of Petroleum Management, The National Institute of Bank Management,
The National Instirute of Construction Management, The Ahmedabad Textile Industry Research Association, etc.

Summary
Training is aplanned programme designed to improve performance and to bring about measurable changes in knowledge, skils,
attitude and social behaviour of employees.
Training makes employees versatile, mobile, flexible and useful to the organisation.
Development is future-oriented training, focusing on the personal growth of the employee.

Learning principles are the guidelines to the way

people learn most effectively. More effective training incorporates more of these
principles.
The various types ot training include: skills training., refresher training, cross functional training, team training, creativity
training, diversity training, and literacy training.
In order to have ettective training programmes, the systems approach is recommended. The systems approach consists of three
phases: needs assessment, implementation and evaluation.
Needs assessment covers: organisation analysis, task and performance analysis and manpower analysis.
Formal training methods include: (i) on-the-job training covering job instruction training, coaching, mentoring, job rotation,
apprenticeship training, committee assignments, and (i) off-the-job training includes lectures, conferences, simulation exercises
and programmed instruction.
Training can be evaluated at five levels: reaction, learning, behaviour, organisation and results.

Terminology
Training: A planned programme designed ro improve performance and bring about measurable changes in knowledge, skill,
attitude and social behaviour of employees.
Developmentr Broadening an individual's knowledge, skils and abilities for future responsibilities.
Education: Conceprual learning that improes understanding ofasubject/theme

Modelling: Copying someone else's behaviour.

Diversity: Differences among people.
and avoid actions
Reinfoncement: A concept that people tend to repeat responses that give them some type of positive reward
associated with negative consequences.
that the latter learns and advances
Mentoring: An experienoced employee offering guidance and support to a junior employee
so

in the organisation.
Job instruction training Training received directly on the job.
Obsolescence: A condition that results when an employee loses the knowledge or abilities to perform successfully due to changes

in the field
Fendback: The process of providing trainees with intormation about their pertormance.
Job rotation: Moving a trainee from job to job so as to provide cross training
role in situation and act out behavious
requiring the
a
ae A development technique trainee to zsume a given
piaying
aatnd wmth that role