Antenna Factor - an overview _ ScienceDirect Topics

4/28/2020 Antenna Factor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Antenna Factor
Antenna factor is the most important parameter, and each calibrated
broadband antenna is supplied with a table of its antenna factor (in
dB/m, for E-field antennas) versus frequency.
From: EMC for Product Designers (Fifth Edition), 2017
Related terms:
Antenna Cable, Measuring Receiver, Preamplifier
Biologically inspired antenna array design using Ormia

modeling*†‡
M. Akcakaya, ... A. Nehorai, in Biomimetic Technologies, 2015
16.3.2 Performance measures

In this section, we describe our measures that we employ to analyze the radiation
performance. First, taking into account the antenna factor (element factor) and the
BIC, we compute the radiation intensity of the antenna array in a given direction
(Balanis, 1982)
(16.19)
where
• [EF(θ, ϕ)]n2 is the normalized element factor, far-zone electric field of a single
element (in our work we assume that the array is formed with finite-length
dipoles, see also Section 16.4.2)
• [AFI(θ)]n2 is the normalized array factor, and
• UI(θ, ϕ), the radiation intensity in a given direction, is the power radiated from
an antenna array per unit solid angle.
Hence, the radiated power Prad is
(16.20)
where θ and ϕ are the elevation and azimuth angles, respectively, and sin θ dθ dϕ
is the unit solid angle.
Using the radiation intensity, we consider the following measures to analyze the
performance of the beam pattern design:
• Directivity, DI(θ, ϕ), is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to
the average radiation intensity
(16.21)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/antenna-factor 1/18
where is the average radiation intensity over all angles. In our work, for
comparison purposes, we consider the directivity gain in a desired direction.
• HPBW, in terms of the elevation angle, θ, for a fixed azimuth angle, ϕ. HPBW
is defined as the angle between two half-power directions (Balanis, 1982).
• Sidelobe level (SLL) defined as the maximum value of the radiation pattern in
any direction other than the desired one.
The directivity gain, HPBW, and SLL measure how effectively the power is directed
(steered) in a given direction. For a good performance, it is desirable to have large
DI(θ, ϕ), small SLL, and narrow HPBW in a desired direction.
Read full chapter

URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081002490000161
EMC Measurements
Tim Williams, in EMC for Product Designers, 1992
Antenna parameters
Those who use antennas for radio communication purposes are familiar with the
specifications of gain and directional response, but these are of only marginal
importance for EMC measurements. The antenna is always oriented for maximum
response. Antenna factor is the most important parameter, and each calibrated
broadband antenna is supplied with a table of its antenna factor versus frequency.
Typical antenna factors for a biconical and a log periodic are shown in Figure 3.4.
To convert the measured voltage at the instrument terminals into the actual field
strength at the antenna you have to add the antenna factor and cable attenuation
(Figure 3.5). Cable attenuation is also a function of frequency.
Figure 3.4. Typical antenna factors
Figure 3.5. Converting field strength to measured voltage
In the far field the electric and magnetic fields are orthogonal (Appendix C, section
C.3). With respect to the physical environment each field may be vertically or
horizontally polarized, or in any direction in between. The actual polarization
depends on the nature of the emitter and on the effect of reflections from other
objects. An antenna will show a maximum response when its plane of polarization
aligns with that of the incident field, and will show a minimum when the planes
are at right angles. The plane of polarization of both biconical and log periodic is in
the plane of the elements.
Read full chapter

RF emissions measurements
Tim Williams, in EMC for Product Designers (Fifth Edition), 2017
Antenna factor
Those who use antennas for radio communication purposes are familiar with the
specifications of gain and directional response, but these are of only marginal
importance for EMC emission measurements. The antenna is always oriented for
maximum response. Antenna factor is the most important parameter, and each
calibrated broadband antenna is supplied with a table of its antenna factor (in
dB/m, for E-field antennas) versus frequency. Antenna calibration is treated in
more detail in section 7.5.2.3. Typical antenna factors for a biconical, a log periodic
and two varieties of BiLog are shown in Figure 7.6. From this you can see that
there is actually very little difference for the log periodic section (above 300MHz) in
particular: any LP design with the same dimensions will give substantially the same
performance. The biconical (30–300MHz) section can be “tweaked” but again,
antennas with the same basic dimension give largely similar performance. This has
the particular consequence that if all labs use pretty much the same design of
antenna (which they do), the inter-lab variations in radiated field measurement due
to the antenna itself are minimized.
Figure 7.6. Typical antenna factors
To convert the measured voltage at the instrument terminals into the actual field
strength at the antenna you have to add the antenna factor and cable attenuation
(Figure 7.7). Cable attenuation is also a function of frequency; it can normally be
regarded as constant with time, although long cables exposed to wide temperature
variations, such as on open sites, may suffer slight variations of loss with
temperature.
Figure 7.7. Converting field strength to measured voltage
Read full chapter

Immunity tests
Tim Williams, in EMC for Product Designers (Fifth Edition), 2017
8.1.1.2 Power amplifier

Most signal sources will not have sufficient output level on their own, and you will
require a set of power amplifiers to increase the level. The power output needed
will depend on the field strength that you have to generate at the EUT, and on the
characteristics of the transducers you use to do this. In contrast to the antenna
factor for emissions measurements, an antenna for RF immunity will be
characterized for the power needed to provide a given field strength at a set
distance. This can be specified either directly or as the gain of the antenna. The
relationship between antenna gain, power supplied to the antenna and field
strength in the far field is:
(8.1)
The gain of a broadband antenna varies with frequency and hence the required
power for a given field strength will also vary with frequency. Figure 8.2 shows a
typical power requirement versus frequency for an unmodulated field strength of
10V/m at a distance of 1m. Less power is needed at high frequencies because of the
higher gain of the log periodic antenna. You can also see the large increase in
power required by the conventional biconical below 80MHz; it is partly because of
this that the lowest frequency for radiated immunity testing was chosen to be
80MHz, although subsequent developments in broadband antennas have
improved the situation (see section 8.1.1.4).
Figure 8.2. Required power versus frequency for 10V/m at 1m, biconical and log
periodic antennas
The [power output · bandwidth] product is the most important parameter of the
power amplifier you will choose, and it largely determines the cost of the unit. Very
broad band amplifiers (1–1000MHz) are available with powers of a few watts, but
this may not be enough to generate required field strengths from a biconical
antenna in the low VHF region. A higher power amplifier with a restricted
bandwidth will also be needed. If you can use two amplifiers, each matched to the
bandwidth and power requirements of the two antennas you are using, this will
minimize switching requirements to cover the whole frequency sweep. Note that
the power delivered to the antenna (net power) is not the same as power supplied
by the amplifier unless the antenna is perfectly matched, a situation which does
not occur in practice. With high VSWR (such as a biconical or standard bilog below
70MHz) most of the power supplied from the amplifier is reflected back to it, which
is inefficient and can be damaging to the amplifier.
Modulation
Some over-rating of the power output is necessary to allow for modulation, system
losses and for the ability to test at a greater distance. Modulation at 80%, as
required by IEC 61000-4-3, increases the instantaneous power requirement by a
factor of 5.2dB (3.3 times) over the unmodulated requirement, as shown in
Figure 8.2. If you will be using the system in a non-anechoic screened room the
system should be further over-rated by at least 6dB (four times power) to allow for
field nulls at certain frequencies due to room reflections. If the system uses other
transducers such as a TEM cell or stripline (discussed in section 8.1.1.4) rather than
antennas, then the power requirement for a given field strength will be
significantly less. Thus there is a direct cost trade-off between the type of
transducer used and the necessary power of the amplifier.
Figure 8.3. Modulated versus unmodulated waveforms
The 1kHz modulation requirement is common to most tests that reference IEC
61000-4-3. Other standards may take a different approach; for instance in the
automotive immunity tests of ISO 11452 the modulation is also 1kHz at 80%
depth, but the specification field strength is quoted at the peak of the modulation,
rather than on an unmodulated waveform. Historically, some product standards
specified a particular test for immunity to GSM phones at a spot frequency of
900MHz, which used pulsed modulation at 200Hz to simulate more accurately the
effects of the GSM signal; this has been dropped in many later versions, on the
grounds that experimental results on several different types of test object showed
that the 1kHz sinewave always gave the most severe results and it was of universal
applicability, a rationale which is detailed in Annex A to IEC 61000-4-3. There are a
few standards that specify different frequencies for their own reasons, for instance
the alarm immunity standard EN 50130-4 requires a 1Hz pulsed modulation, since
many alarm detectors will be sensitive to a slow rate of change of the RF stress.
Note that when you are setting the applied power level during calibration for any
RF immunity test, the modulation should be disabled; RF power meters and field
strength meters give inaccurate results on modulated signals.
Secondary parameters
Other factors that you should take into account (apart from cost) when specifying a
power amplifier are:
• linearity: RF immunity testing can tolerate some distortion but this should not
be excessive, since it will appear as harmonics of the test frequency and may
give rise to spurious responses in the EUT; according to earlier versions of IEC
61000-4-3, distortion products should be at least − 15dB relative to the carrier,
but this has been revised. The present requirement is to confirm that the
overall system (power amplifier and antenna) is not saturating beyond the 2dB
compression point at a level of 1.8 times the maximum stress level (to allow for
modulation);
• ruggedness: the amplifier should be able to operate at full power continuously,
without shutting itself down, into an infinite VSWR, i.e. an open or short circuit
load. Test antennas are not perfect, and neither are the working practices of
test engineers!
• power gain: full power output must be obtainable from the expected level of
input signal, with some safety margin, across the whole frequency band;
• reliability and maintainability: in a typical test facility you are unlikely to have
access to several amplifiers, so when it goes faulty you need to have assurance
that it can be quickly repaired.
Read full chapter

Long-term performance and failure of orthopedic

devices
Adam C. Marsh, ... Xanthippi Chatzistavrou, in Bone Repair Biomaterials (Second
Edition), 2019
15.3 Mechanical failure

Classifying an orthopedic device as a failure means that the device no longer
sufficiently meets a predefined set of criteria. For orthopedic devices, this can mean
many things. Excessive wear is a cause of failure, whereby the effects due to this
phenomenon adversely affect the patient or cause the device to perform
inadequately. A device that migrates too far from its intended spot is also a failure.
It is important to remember that failure does not only mean fracture, but a failure
to perform its job in a sufficient manner.
15.3.1 In vivo measurement techniques for assessing failure
Recent technological advancements have allowed for telemetry to be utilized to
directly collect measurements of orthopedic devices in vivo. Telemetry is the
process of collecting readings from an instrument. Graichen et. al discuss in detail
how measurement devices can be incorporated into total hip or knee arthroplasties
[37]. The most popular way these devices are used is through inductive coupling
[38]. A coil is placed within the device and a coil is placed right outside the implant
to transfer the data [38]. However, this technique is highly sensitive to the distance
and alignment of the coils [38]. Other ways to incorporate telemetry into
orthopedic devices is to use either a wireless antenna or ultrasound
communication [38]. However, with a wireless antenna, factors such as its
performance in a dynamic environment and finding a biocompatible frequency
with which to operate may be a challenge [38]. While a battery could be used to
power these devices, the lifespan is not ideal. Other methods are used to power
these devices such as inductive coupling, resonant-based power, and power
harvesting [38].
Strain gauges are the most common way to collect in vivo data. The use of a strain
gauge can give insight into the friction the orthopedic device is experiencing from
collecting data on the experienced forces [39]. Knowing the friction can give insight
into how much loosening has occurred in the orthopedic device. Many of the
studies performed thus far are concerned with the forces exhibited during walking,
as this is the most common force seen on the orthopedic devices [39–41]. As more
research is done on how to incorporate telemetry into orthopedic devices, it is
expected that these in vivo measurement techniques will become common
practice.
15.3.2 Fatigue
Fatigue is another common cause of failure in orthopedic devices, specifically in
joint replacements. Fatigue is a cyclic process in which microscopic cracks form
[42]. This can be characterized as a dangerous failure due to the difficulty in
observing the microcracks in vivo along with the microcrack’s ability to merge
forming a large crack.
This cyclic stress is sinusoidal between a maximum stress and a minimum stress.
In the case of orthopedic devices, the minimum stress is around zero, as this is the
stress applied at rest. The stress generally exhibited is much lower than the
ultimate tensile strength of the material. There are two types of fatigue: high-cycle
fatigue and low-cycle fatigue. High-cycle fatigue is the ability to survive more than
100,000 cycles (of loading and unloading), whereas low-cycle fatigue is anything
that fails below 100,000 cycles [43].
Fig. 15.8 represents a graph of a typical stress to the number of cycles (S/N) curve
for a material’s fatigue life. For orthopedic implants, high-cycle fatigue materials
are preferred as they can provide a longer lifetime.
Figure 15.8. A typical stress to the number of cycles (S/N) graph [43].
To measure fatigue, a machine applies a sinusoidal stress that replicates conditions

seen in vivo. While in vitro testing can provide useful information, it cannot
perfectly simulate the conditions the material would be exposed to in vivo, due to
individual patient lifestyle variability and other factors, and as such only estimates
can be made.
Fatigue, as with wear, is a material’s natural response to its applications in joint
replacements. For orthopedic devices that are not exposed to continuous loading
and unloading, fatigue is not a concern. Fortunately, there are a couple of options
that can help minimize fatigue. The first option is to minimize the number of
cracks and defects present in the orthopedic device before implantation. When a
crack or defect is present on the surface, the crack or defect can spread faster
because of eliminating the time it takes to initiate a crack/defect. While the physics
behind crack initiation are beyond the scope of this section, readers are referred to
another publication [44]. The second option is to manipulate the geometry of the
orthopedic device. As with wear, notches and sharp angles are known to
concentrate stress, so minimizing the number of sharp angles or notches in a
design will help minimize the effect of fatigue.
15.3.3 Creep
Creep is considered a time-dependent deformation with the phenomenon
beginning at above 40% of the melting point in degrees kelvin [43]. To measure
creep, a constant stress is applied while measuring how the strain rate changes
over time. For metals and ceramics, since their melting point is above 1000K, this
phenomenon is negligible. For polymers, since their melting point is below 500K,
considering creep is necessary. Fig. 15.9 represents a typical graph of a material
when it exhibits creep.
Figure 15.9. A typical graph representing creep behavior in materials [43].
UHMWPE, a common orthopedic device material, has a melting temperature of

about 133°C (406K) [45]. With the human body temperature being approximately
37.5°C (310.5K), UHMWPE in vivo is at 76% of its melting temperature [45]. It is
safe to assume that creep will occur. While UHMWPE has a reasonable resistance
to wear when compared to other polymers, it lacks creep resistance, so it will easily
deform when stress is applied [46]. This can lead to detrimental effects such as
loosening of the orthopedic device and finally failure. Creep is generally the
dominant mechanism of adverse effects occurring in orthopedic devices during the
first year postimplantation [17,46]. Penetration of the femoral head in a THA is how
creep appears, while when UHMWPE is used as a spacer in a TKA, creep can cause
the other components to shift into undesirable locations or orientations.
15.3.4 Corrosion
The definition of corrosion, in terms of orthopedic implants, is the reaction of the
material to the conditions within the human body. This can lead to undesired
changes in the geometry of the device along with the potential for unfavorable
changes in pH and other local environment effects. The combination of these
factors leads to an immune response by the host and can jeopardize the integrity of
the device.
Corrosion is generally not cited as the main cause of failure but accelerates
processes such as wear, which decreases the lifetime of the orthopedic device [47].
Corrosion occurs due to the human body having a dynamic electrochemical
environment. As such, there are many cations and anions available with which the
metal parts of an orthopedic device can react. When this reaction occurs, a minute
amount of material is removed. For metals, an acceptable corrosion rate is
2.5 × 10−4 mm/year [47]. An example of corrosion in joint replacements is stress-
corrosion cracking (SCC).
To observe SCC, a combination of a constant applied stress to the device along with
its interaction with the surrounding electrochemical environment causes cracks to
form. Fig. 15.10 represents how SCC appears on the macroscale. To observe SCC, a
specific mechanical and chemical environment is required. Since specific
conditions are required, it is difficult to simulate in vitro let alone to try to measure
in vivo. A good indicator of whether the chemical conditions are ideal is the pH. It
is not as easy as observing the global pH surrounding the orthopedic device,
because it is the local changes in pH, especially at a crack initiation site, which
dictate how severe the corrosion is.
Figure 15.10. A titanium implant that has suffered from stress-corrosion cracking
where the arrow denotes the crack [151].
An important question that occurs is the following: in case the materials used for
orthopedic devices react with the human body, how can the orthopedic device be
protected from the corrosive effects of its environment? To protect the orthopedic
device, a passivating coating can be applied. This layer is generally an oxide, which
protects the device, because the applied oxide is much less reactive to the
electrochemical environment of the human body. However, the oxide will have
different mechanical properties than the metal. Consideration of how to protect the
oxide layer is paramount to maintaining the longevity of orthopedic devices. Fig.
15.11 illustrates how the passive oxide layer interacts with the implant. There is a
small damage zone from the cyclic loading that has deformed the orthopedic
implant. The passive oxide layer also interacts with the different cells and fluids
surrounding the orthopedic implant.
Figure 15.11. An illustration that demonstrates how a passive oxide layer interacts
with both the orthopedic implant and the physiological environment [53].
Other ways to prevent corrosion are to modify the surface in other ways to protect
the bulk material, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Read full chapter

The ZigBee Development Environment

In Zigbee Wireless Networking, 2008
3.1 Development Hardware

ZigBee is a small wireless networking protocol designed for IEEE 802.15.4 radios
and 8-bit microcontrollers. Together, the radio, ZigBee stack, and microcontroller
make what is called a platform. If the platform has been certified by the ZigBee
Alliance as compliant (and not all ZigBee platforms are), then the platform is called
a ZigBee Certified Platform, or ZCP.
Developing for ZigBee is basically the same for all platforms (see Figure 3.1). A PC
set of tools builds and compiles applications, which are then downloaded into
target boards for debugging, usually through USB or Ethernet (although some
platforms allow wireless download).
Figure 3.1. ZigBee Development Hardware
The PC tools required for ZigBee development usually include:

• An IDE for development, including compiling code into the appropriate form
for the target microcontroller
• A ZigBee stack configuration or application “template” tool
• A debugger for downloading and stepping through source code lines on the
target platform
• A protocol analyzer for debugging the network over-the-air
• Hardware for ZigBee development kits usually include:
• Two or more ZigBee boards
• A means of connecting target boards to the PC, usually through USB or
Ethernet
• A JTAG or BDM debug device for programming the flash memory in the target
boards
• A sniffer for detecting over-the-air packets and delivering them to the protocol
analyzer
• Power supplies and/or batteries for powering the boards
At the time of this writing, some of the main ZigBee platform vendors include:
• Airbee
• Atmel
• Ember
• Freescale
• Integration Associates
• Jennic
• MeshNetics
• Microchip
• NEC
• Oki
• Renesas/ZMD
• Silicon Laboratories
• ST Microelectronics
• Texas Instruments/ChipCon
Of these vendors, only TI, Ember, Integration Associates, and Freescale are
considered Golden Units. Golden Units form the ZigBee compatibility test suite
sanctioned by the ZigBee Alliance. All other ZigBee Certified Platforms are tested
against the Golden Units for compliance. Not all vendors provide ZigBee Certified
Platforms, but most do. Make sure to check when evaluating a vendor, as a non-
certified stack may not work with other ZigBee stacks (but could still be used as a
proprietary mesh-networking stack).
Of the ZigBee Certified Platforms, I've chosen Freescale for this book, mainly
because it's the one I'm most familiar with. I'll be delving into many details of that
platform, but as you can expect with any book, some information will be out-of-
date by the time this is in print. The ZigBee concepts will remain the same,
however, as ZigBee, like IP and WiFi™, is a standard protocol designed to be
available for many years to come.
Of course, the easiest way to learn the current details of each platform is to go to
the World Wide Web. The Web sites for larger corporations include a simple way to
find information on their ZigBee products, such as
http://www.freescale.com/zigbee, http://www.ti.com/zigbee, or
http://www.st.com/zigbee. For smaller companies, the ZigBee information tends to
be somewhere on their home page (e.g., http://www.ember.com).
Some of the platforms are pictured in Figure 3.2. Notice the variety of form factors,
antenna designs, and peripherals. And these are just development boards from the
silicon vendors. There are also many, many pre-certified module designs for any
application.
Figure 3.2. Some ZigBee Platforms
The heart of a ZigBee platform is the 802.15.4 radio. While it can be sold stand-
alone, the radio is often coupled with a microcontroller inside a system-in-package
(SIP) or system-on-chip (SOC). Typically the radios and microcontrollers are both
good at low power, consuming something below two microAmps (μA) when in low
power mode. Due to the low-cost nature of ZigBee, the microcontrollers are
usually 8-bit, although 16-bit and 32-bit micros are starting to become common
and with surprisingly small price tags.
A typical diagram for a ZigBee radio and MCU looks something like the
arrangement in Figure 3.3. The radio (also called a transceiver) communicates to
the MCU through the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) port with interrupts signaling
events, such as when a packet has been received, or the channel is clear to
transmit.
Figure 3.3. A Typical ZigBee System
The sensors, actuators and other peripherals which make up the full application
beyond the ZigBee networking portion tend to be external, and connected through
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) or SPI, IIC or UART (serial port).
The ZigBee microcontroller in these single-package systems has a wide set of
peripherals and enough RAM and Flash memory to run the ZigBee stack and at
least a small ZigBee application. Some have as little as 60 K of flash and 4 K of
RAM; others have 128 K of flash or more, and 8 K of RAM. Check with the vendors
for their latest offerings. Generally you will see one of three silicon configurations
for ZigBee boards (see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4. ZigBee Board Configurations
• A stand-alone board with a ZigBee single chip solution, in which the

application is completely encapsulated on the board.
• A communications module in which the ZigBee single chip solution acts as a
networking link, but the more complex application resides on another, usually
32-bit MCU.
• A board in which the ZigBee radio is stand-alone, and the ZigBee protocol runs
on the larger host CPU.
Every silicon vendor who makes ZigBee radios offers some sort of development kit,
complete with all the hardware and software necessary to develop ZigBee or
802.15.4 applications. These kits come with two or more development boards, a
USB, serial or Ethernet connection to the boards, and some kind of debug
connection (BDM or JTAG) to download new binary images into the boards and to
debug applications. The kits also come with sample applications to get you started.
These kits vary quite a bit in pricing, so check the Web for the latest information.
They can be purchased directly from the silicon vendor's site, or through
distributors such as DigiKey (http://www.digikey.com).
I won't recommend a particular ZigBee kit, radio or stack here because that
landscape changes quickly, and different components are better suited for different
projects. A simple, broad recommendation is that you can trust the products from
the big name silicon vendors. They tend to have large distribution channels,
worldwide support, and strong internal testing, and tend to stay in the market for
long periods of time. The smaller companies, however, can often offer more
personalized and flexible support. Because nearly every 8-bit silicon vendor offers a
ZigBee solution, you are probably already familiar with your favorite players. My
suggestion is to read the online literature and talk to their customers.
Go to www.company.com/zigbee to find information on a company's ZigBee
offerings, for example, http://www.freescale.com/zigbee, or
http://www.ti.com/zigbee.
3.1.1 Introduction to the Freescale NSK
As mentioned previously, the examples in this book are mostly made on the
Freescale ZigBee Certified Platform, BeeStack. The choice was made because it's
one of the prominent ZigBee solutions, and also the one this author is most
familiar with.
To keep things simple, the bulk of the examples throughout this book are designed
to work with a particular hardware kit provided by Freescale, the Network Starter
Kit (1321xNSK-BDM). This kit comes complete with everything needed to develop
ZigBee applications: three ZigBee boards (one NCB and two SRBs), a compiler
(CodeWarrior), a debugger, and a ZigBee stack configuration tool (BeeKit). In
addition, a trial version of a third-party ZigBee network analyzer is included (the
Daintree Sensor Network Analyzer).
Look over the NSK components as shown in Figure 3.5. As you can see, the kit
includes a set of ZigBee boards, power supplies and batteries for the ZigBee
development boards, USB cables to connect to the boards, and the installation
software on CD.
Figure 3.5. The Freescale Network Starter Kit (NSK)
Each ZigBee board in the Freescale NSK uses the Freescale MC13213 single-chip
solution (the radio and MCU in a SIP). Each board comes in a plastic case with a
clear cover. Each board hosts four application-driven buttons, a reset button, four
LEDs, and a serial connection via the USB port. In addition, each board exposes the
GPIOs available from the microcontroller, so that sensors and actuators can be
added using a simple connector.
The smaller Sensor Remote Boards (SRB) also include a low-g 3-axis accelerometer
(MMA7260Q) and a temperature sensor (LM61BI), both of which will be used in
examples later on in this book. The larger Network Control Board (NCB) does not
include sensors, but does include a 2-line by 16-column LCD display.
Although the development boards themselves are the size of a small PDA, it's
interesting to note that the ZigBee components fit into the area of a U.S. dime (the
MC13213 is in a 7×7 mm package). The white rectangle contains all the ZigBee
components on the Freescale SRB (see Figure 3.6). This is true of every vendor.
ZigBee is small.
Figure 3.6. ZigBee Is as Small as a Dime
Each Freescale board is also available as a full reference design, and can be
downloaded free-of-charge from the Freescale Web site, complete with schematics
and a bill of materials (BOM). Free schematics are pretty typical with the ZigBee
platform vendors. They are interested in selling chips so they do everything they
can think of to make your life easier.
The Freescale Network Starter Kit (NSK) is used for the examples in this book.
Full hardware reference designs for many platforms are available on the web.
Read full chapter

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4/28/2020 Antenna Factor - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

Antenna Cable, Measuring Receiver, Preampliﬁer

Biologically inspired antenna array design using Ormia

16.3.2 Performance measures

Read full chapter

Figure 3.4. Typical antenna factors

Figure 3.5. Converting ﬁeld strength to measured voltage

Read full chapter

Figure 7.6. Typical antenna factors

Figure 7.7. Converting ﬁeld strength to measured voltage

Read full chapter

8.1.1.2 Power ampliﬁer

Figure 8.3. Modulated versus unmodulated waveforms

Read full chapter

Long-term performance and failure of orthopedic

15.3 Mechanical failure

To measure fatigue, a machine applies a sinusoidal stress that replicates conditions

Figure 15.9. A typical graph representing creep behavior in materials [43].

UHMWPE, a common orthopedic device material, has a melting temperature of

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The ZigBee Development Environment

3.1 Development Hardware

Figure 3.1. ZigBee Development Hardware

The PC tools required for ZigBee development usually include:

Figure 3.2. Some ZigBee Platforms

Figure 3.3. A Typical ZigBee System

Figure 3.4. ZigBee Board Conﬁgurations

• A stand-alone board with a ZigBee single chip solution, in which the

Figure 3.5. The Freescale Network Starter Kit (NSK)

Figure 3.6. ZigBee Is as Small as a Dime

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