MODULE 4 III SEM NETWORK ANALYSIS[BEC304]

MODULE 4

SYLLABUS:
Laplace Transformation &Applications: Solution of networks, step, ramp and impulse
responses, waveform Synthesis.
___________________________________________________________________________
Laplace Transforms
Laplace transforms are used to transform the differential equation to the frequency domain
where the independent variable in complex frequency ‘s’ (s=σ+jω). This helps in converting
integro-differential equation into algebraic operation. The Laplace transform of a function of
time f(t) is defined as
∞ ∞
∫ f (t ) e
−∞
−st
dt= ∫ f (t ) e−st dt
£{f(t)}=F(s)= 0− where s is the complex frequency variable s=σ+jω.
The inverse transform is given by
σ1+ j∞
1
j2π
∫ F ( s) est ds
f(t)= £-{F(s)}= σ1− j∞ σ is a real positive quantity.
List of Laplace transform of basic functions
u(t) 1
s
δ(t) 1
tu(t) 1
s2
tn 1
n! s n+1

eat u(t) 1
s−a
e-at u(t) 1
s +a
sin(ωt) ω
s +ω 2
2

cos(ωt) s
s +ω 2
2

sinh(ωt) ω
s −ω2
2

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cosh(ωt) a
s −ω2
2

eat f(t) F(s-a)

f(t-a)u(t-a) e-asF(s)
df(t ) sF(s)-f(0-)
dt
d n f (t ) n
s F ( s)=∑ sn− j f j−1 (0−)
n
dt n j=1
t F ( s)
∫ f ( τ ) dτ s
0−

e-atsin(ωt) ω
( s+a )2 + ω2
e-at cos(ωt) s +a
( s+a )2 + ω2

Types of basic signals and its Laplace Transforms

Impulse functions: Unit impulse or delta functions

The impulse function δ(t) is defined by the equation δ(t)
∞ 0+
∫ δ (t ) dt = ∫ δ(t ) dt =1
−∞ 0−
0 t
δ(t)=0 for t≠0
∞
∫
£{ δ(t)}=F(s)=−∞
δ(t) e−st dt=1

Step functions: u(t)

The unit step function u(t) is defined as
1
u(t )=0 t<0
=1 t≥0 0 t
The physical analogy of step excitation corresponds to a switch at t=0 and connected to DC
battery of 1 Volt given to the circuit

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∞
1
∫−∞ u(t ) e−st dt= s
£{ u(t)}=F(s)=
Ramp functions:
The unit ramp function r(t) is defined as r(t)=tu(t) r(t)
r (t )=0 t<0
1
=t t≥0
∞ 0 t
1 1
∫−∞ tu(t ) e dt= s2−st

£{ r(t)}=F(s)=
sin(ωt):
£{ sin(ωt)}=F(s)=

[ ]
∞ ∞ ∞
e jωt−e− jωt −st e( jω-s) t −e−( jω+s) t 1 e( jω-s)t e−( jω+ s)t
∫ 2j e dt =∫
2j
dt=
2j ( jω−s)
−
( jω+s)
= ω
0− 0− 0− s +ω 2
2

cos(ωt):
£{ cos(ωt)}=F(s)=

[ ]
∞ ∞ ∞
e jωt +e−jωt −st e( jω-s )t +e−( jω+s) t 1 e( jω-s ) t e−( jω+s )t
∫ 2 e dt =∫ 2
dt=
2j ( jω−s)
+
( jω+s)
= s
0− 0− 0− s 2 +ω 2

t
∫ f (t ) dt
Integral functions: 0

[∫ ] ∫ (∫ )
t ∞ t
−st
f ( τ ) dτ = e f ( τ ) dτ dt
By definition, £ 0 0 0

t
∫ f ( τ ) dτ
Integrating by parts, u= 0 dv=e-st

e−st
f (τ ) dτ]t0− v = −
s
du= ¿ f (t ) dt
t
e− st ∞ ∞ e−st
∫ f ( τ ) dτ s ]0−+∫ s f (t ) dt
=0 0

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As t→ ∞ e-st →0
F ( s)
= s
df(t )
Derivative: dt
By definition,
∞
{ f (t )} = ∫ f ' (t ) e−st dt
'

£ 0−

Integrating by parts, u=e-st dv=f ‘(t)

du= -se-st v=f(t)
∞ ∞
= ∫ f ' (t ) e−st dt= f (t ) e−st ]∞0− +∫ f (t ) e−st dt
0− 0-
∞
=f (t ) e−st ]∞0− +s ∫ f (t ) e−st dt
0−
=−f (0−) +s F(s)

Shifting Theorem:
If £{f(t)}=F(s) then £{ f(t-a)}=e-as F(s)
Proof:
∞
∫ f ( t-a) e−st dt
By definition, £{eat f(t)}= 0
Put t-a=u then t=a+u
When t=0 u=-a
t=∞ u=∞
∞
∫ f (u) e−s(a+u ) du
=0
∞
e −as
∫ f (u) e−su du
= 0
−as
=e F( s)

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Waveform Synthesis:
Any nonperiodic signal can be synthesized using three basic functions-step, ramp and
impulse.

Laplace Transform of the periodic waveforms

Consider a periodic waveform f(t) whose period is T. The Laplace Transform of this function
by definition is given by
£{f(t)}=
T 2T 3T (n+1 )T

∫ f (t ) e
−st
dt+∫ f (t−T ) e dt+ ∫ f (t−2T) e dt+.................+
−st −st
∫ f (t−nT ) e−st dt+.........
0− T 2T nT

By using shifting theorem of Laplace Transform,

=F(s)+e-TsF(s)+e-2TsF(s)+e-3TsF(s)+………………….
=F(s){1+e-Ts+e-2Ts+e-3Ts……………}
F (s )
=
1−e _Ts

For example, find the Laplace Transform of the periodic wave shown in Figure given
below f ( t)
30
...............

0 2 3 5 6 t
f 1( t)
30 m 1= 1 5 m 2= 3 0

0 2 3 5 6 t

f 1( t)

0 2 3 5 6 t

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f1(t)=15tu(t)-15(t-2)u(t-2)-30(t-2)u(t-2)+30(t-3) u(t-3)
15 15e−2s 30e−2s 30e−3s
F 1 (s )= − 2 − 2 + 2
s2 s s s
15 45e−2s 30e−3s
F 1 (s )= − 2 + 2
s2 s s

15 15e−2s 30e−2s 30e−3s

− 2 − 2 + 2
s2 s s s
F (s )=
1−e−3s

Inverse Laplace Transforms

Inverse Laplace transforms can be taken in any one of the methods given below

(i) By formula
The inverse transform is given by
σ1+ j∞
1
j2π
∫ F( s) est ds
f(t)= £-{F(s)}= σ1− j∞ σ is a real positive quantity.
(ii) By Partial Fraction method
(iii) By Convolution

Laplace Transform of Convolution Integral (folding Integral)

Given two functions f1(t) and f2(t) which are zero for t<0, the convolution theorem states
that if the transform of f1(t) is F1(s) and that of f2(t) is F2(s) , then the transform of
convolution of f1(t) and f2(t) is the product of individual transform F1(s) F2(s)

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[ ]
∞ t
∫∫ f 1 (t−τ ) f 2(τ ) dτ e−st dt =F 1 ( s) F 2 ( s)
£ {f1(t)*f2(t)}= £ 0 0

Proof:

[∫∫ ]
∞ t
−st
f 1 (t−τ ) f 2 (τ ) dτ e dt
£ {f1(t)*f2(t)}= £ 0 0

x=t −τ t= x+ τ
Let dx=dt

[ ]
∞ 0
∫∫ f 1 (x ) e−s( x+ τ) dx f 2 (τ ) dτ
= 0 -x

[∫ ]
∞ o
e
−sτ
∫ f 1( x ) e−sx dx f 2(τ ) dτ
= 0 -x

[∫ ]
∞
e−sτ f 2 (τ ) dτ F 1 (s)
= 0
=F1(s) F2(s)

Initial and Final Value Theorems

Initial Value theorem:
It relates the initial value of f(t) at t=0+ to the limiting value of sF(s) as s approaches infinity

lim f ( t )= lim sF( s )

i.e t →0+ s→∞

The only restriction is that f(t) must be continuous or contain at most a step discontinuity at
t=0
Proof:
∞
L ( f (t )) =∫ f (t )e−st dt=F (s)
Laplace transform of a function f(t) is, 0 then Laplace transform of
∞
L ( f ' (t ))= ∫ f ' (t )e−st dt=sF(s)−f (0−)
its derivative f ' (t) is 0−

lim L ( f (t ))=0= lim sF( s )−f (0−)

'

s→ ∞ s→∞

lim sF ( s )=f ( 0−)= lim f ( t )

s→ ∞ t→ 0

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Example1:
Find the initial value for the function f (t) = 2 u (t) + 3 cost u (t)
L(f(t))=2u(t)+3cos(t)u(t)
2 3s
F (s )= + 2
s s +1

lim f ( t )=f ( 0 )= lim sF ( s )

t→ 0 s →∞

lim 2+
[ ]
3
= =5
1
s→∞ 1+ 2
s

Example 2:
0 . 9(s +1)
F (s )=
2 .1s 2 +5s+ 16
By initial value theorem
1
s 2 0 . 9(1+ )
f (0)= lim s0 . 9( s+15) 16 = lim s
=
0.9
5 16 2 . 1
=0 . 429
s→∞ s 2 (2 .1+ + 2 ) s→∞ 2
s (2 .1+ + 2 )
s s s s
Example 3:
s+1
F (s )=
Find the initial value of s+2
Solution:
1
s2 (1+ )
f (0)= lim s(s+1)
( s+2)
= lim
2
s
=∞
s→∞ s→∞ s(1+ )
s
Final Value Theorem:
f(t) and f'(t) both are Laplace Transformable and sF(s) has no pole in jω axis and in the

lim sF ( s )= lim f ( t )
R.H.P. (Right half Plane) then, s→0 t →∞

Proof:
Let f(t)=f(t)u(t)=0 for t<0
∞
f (t )=∫ f ' (t ) e−st dt=sF(s)−f ( 0−)
'

ʆ 0

When , the above equation becomes

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∞
∫ f ' (t ) dt=-f(0−)
0

f (t )|∞0 =f (∞)-f (0)= Lt [ sF( s)-f (0-)]

s→0

f (∞)= Lt sF( s )
s→0

Examples of Final Value Theorem of Laplace Transform

Find the final values of the given F(s) without calculating explicitly f(t)
1
F (s)=
1. s( s+4 )
s 1
f (∞)=lim sF ( s )=lim =
s→0 s →0 s (s +4 ) 4
2s +51
F (s )=
2. 47s2 +67s
s(2 s+51) 51
f (∞)=lim sF ( s )=lim =
s→0 s →0 s ( 47 s+67 ) 67

Inverse Laplace Transforms:

Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction Expansion

This technique uses Partial Fraction Expansion to split up a complicated fraction into forms
that are in the Laplace Transform table.

Distinct Real Roots

Find the inverse Laplace Transform of:

s +1 A1 A2
F ( s )= = +
s( s+2 ) s s+2

Solution:
s+1 1
A1 = |s=0 =
s+2 2
s+1 1
A2 = |s=-2=
s 2
So

1 1
s +1 2 2
F (s )= = +
s( s+2 ) s s +2

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And

1 1
f (t )= u(t )+ e−2t u (t )
2 2

Expressed another way

1 1
f (t )= + e−2t , t >0
2 2

Repeated Real Roots

Find the inverse Laplace Transform of the function F(s)

s 2 +1 A1 A2 A3
F (s )= 2 = + + 2
. s (s+ 2) s +2 s s

Solution:
We can find two of the unknown coefficients

s2 +1 5
A1 = 2 |s=-2=
s 4
s2 +1 1
A3 = |s=-2=
s+2 2
We find the other term using cross-multiplication:

s2 +1=s2 A1 +s (s +2) A2 +( s+2 ) A 3

Equating like powers of "s" gives us:

1
A2 + A 1 =1 ⇒ A2 =−
4

s 2 +1 5 1 11 1 1
F (s)= 2 = − +
s (s+2) 4 s+2 4 s 2 s2

And

5 1 1
f (t )= e−2t − + t, t> 0
4 4 2

Complex Roots

Another case that often comes up is that of complex conjugate roots. Consider the fraction:

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s+3
F (s )=
( s+5 )( s2 +4s+5 )

The second term in the denominator cannot be factored into real terms. This leaves us with
two possibilities - either accept the complex roots, or find a way to include the second order
term.

Example: Complex Conjugate Roots (Method 1)

Using the complex (first order) roots

Solution:
s+3 s+3
F (s )= =
(s +5 )(s 2 +4s+5 ) ( s+5 )( s+2− j)( s+2+ j)
A1 A2 A3
= + +
( s+5 ) ( s+2− j ) ( s+2+ j)

Where

s+3
A1 =( s+5) 2
|s=−5=−0.2
( s+5)(s +4s+5)
s+3
A2 =(s+2-j) |s=−2+ j=0.1-0.2j
(s+5)( s 2 +4s+5)
s+3
A3 =(s+2+ j ) 2
|s=−2− j =0.1+0.2j
( s+5)( s +4s+5)
Note that A2 and A3 must be complex conjugates of each other since they are equivalent
except for the sign on the imaginary part. Performing the required calculations:

So

s+3 s +3 -0 .2 0. 1-0 . 2j 0 .1+0. 2j

F (s )= = = + +
( s+5 )( s2 +4s+5 ) (s +5 )(s+2− j)(s +2+ j ) ( s+5 ) (s+2− j) ( s+2+ j)

Taking inverse Laplace Transform

f (t )=−0.2e−5t +( 0.1−0.2j)e−(−2+ j)t +(0.1+0.2j)e−(−2− j)t

)−(0.2j)( e )
−(2+ j)t
f (t )=−0.2e−5t +( 0.1) ( e
−(2+ j)t −(−2− j) t −(−2− j)t
+e −e
e− jt +e jt
( ) ( )
− jt +jt
−5t -2t 2t −e +e
=−0.2e +2x(0.1) e −2jx(0.2j)e
2 2j

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f (t )=−0 . 2e−5t +0 . 2e-2t cost +0 . 4e-2t sint for t>0

Example: Complex Conjugate Roots (Method 2)
Method 2 - Using the second order polynomial
Solution:
Another way to expand the fraction without resorting to complex numbers is to perform the
expansion as follows.
s+3 A Bs+C
F (s )= = +
( s+5 )( s +4s+5 ) s+5 ( s 2 +4s +5)
2

Note that the numerator of the second term is no longer a constant, but is instead a first order
polynomial

s+3=( s2 +4s+5) A +( s+5 )(Bs+C )

3=5A+5C
0=A +B
1=4A+5B+C
Solving for A,B,C

A=-0.2, B=0.2 and C=0.8

s+3 0 . 2 0. 2s+0 .8 0. 2 0 . 2s 0. 8
F (s )= =− + 2 =− + 2 + 2
2
(s +5 )(s +4s +5 ) s+5 (s +4s+5 ) s+5 ( s +4s +5) (s +4s+5 )
0 .2 0 . 2s 0.8
=− + +
s +5 (s +2)2 +1 ) ( s+2)2 +1 )

The inverse Laplace Transform is given

f (t )=−0 . 2e−5t +0 . 2e-2t cost +0 . 4e-2t sint for t>0

Order of numerator polynomial equals order of denominator
When the Laplace Domain Function is not strictly proper (i.e., the order of the numerator is
different than that of the denominator) we can not immediatley apply the techniques
described above.
Example: Order of Numerator Equals Order of Denominator
Find the inverse Laplace Transform of the function F(s).

3s 2 +2s +3
F (s )=
s 2 +3s +2

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Solution:
For the fraction shown below, the order of the numerator polynomial is not less than that of
the denominator polynomial, therefore we first perform long division
Now we can express the fraction as a constant plus a proper ratio of polynomials.

3s 2 +2s +3 7s+3 A A2
F (s )= 2 =3− 2 =3+ 1 +
s +3s +2 s +3s +2 ( s+1) (s +2 )
Using the cover up method to get A1 and A2 we get

3s 2 +2s +3 7s+3 4 11
F (s )= =3− =3+ −
s 2 +3s +2 s 2 +3s +2 ( s+1) ( s+2 )

f (t )=3δ(t )+4e−t −11e−2t for t>0

Exponentials in the numerator
The last case we will consider is that of exponentials in the numerator of the function.
Example: Exponentials in the numerator
Find the inverse Laplace Transform of the function F(s).

s(1+e−1. 5s +e−2. 2s )+e−1. 5s

F (s )=
s( s+2 )
Solution:
The exponential terms indicate a time delay (see the time delay property). The first thing we
need to do is collect terms that have the same time delay.

s(1+e−1. 5s +e−2. 2s )+e−1. 5s 1 s +1 1

F (s )= = +e−1. 5s +e−2 .2s
s( s+2 ) s+2 s( s+2 ) (s +2)
We now perform a partial fraction expansion for each time delay term (in this case we only
need to perform the expansion for the term with the 1.5 second delay), but in general you
must do a complete expansion for each term.

F (s )=
s(1+e−1. 5s +e−2. 2s )+e−1. 5s
s( s+2 )
=
1
s+ 2
+e−1. 5s
11 1 1
−
[
2 s 2 (s +2)
+e−2 .2s
1
(s +2)]
Now we can do the inverse Laplace Transform of each term (with the appropriate time
delays)

f (t )=e−2t u (t )+ ( 12 − 12 e ) u(t−1 .5 )+e

−2(t−1. 5 ) −2( t−2 . 2)
u(t−2 .2 )

Response of RC network with DC excitation:

Consider the circuit shown below

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The capacitor in the circuit is initially uncharged and is in series with a resistor. The switch K
is closed at t=o. The differential equation is given by
1
Ri+
C
∫ i dt =V
Taking Laplace Transform

[
I (s ) R+
1
Cs
=
]
V
s
V
I (s )=
(
R s+
1
RC )
1
V − t
i(t )= e RC
R
i

V
R

V
0.37
R

τ t

V
;i(τ )=0 . 37
When t=RC=τ R
The current decreases to 37% of its initial value and is known as one time constant. The
time constant is useful in comparing one response with another.

Ve
( RC )
−
1
t
Voltage across resistance=iR= =VR

− (RC1 ) t
Voltage across the capacitor=V-VR=V[1-e ]

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Response of RL network with DC excitation:

Consider the circuit shown below

The inductor L is in series with a resistor. The switch K is closed at t=o. The differential
equation is given by
di
R i+L =V
dt
Taking Laplace Transform of the above equation
RI(s)+sLI(s)-Li(0-)=V/s
Taking initially relaxed system, i(0-)=0
V
I (s ) [ R +sL ] =
s
V A B V V
I (s )= = + = −
sL s + ( RL ) s
s+
R Rs
L ( )
R s+
R
L

[ ]
R
V − t
i(t )= 1−e L u (t )
R

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V
;i(τ )=0 . 633
When t=RC=τ R
V
;i(∞)=
When t=∞; R
When t=τ, the current reaches 63% of its final value, i.e one time constant.

DC response to RLC network:

Consider the network shown below

di 1
V = Ri +L + ∫ i dt
dt C
By taking Laplace Transform of the above equation,
1 V V
RI (s )+sLI (s )−Li (0−)+ I (s )+ 0 =
Cs s s

Assuming initially relaxed system, i(0-)=0, V0=0

V V V
I (s )= = =
[
s R+sL+
1
Cs ] [ R
L s 2 + s+
L LC
1
]L(s−s1 )( s−s 2 )

The roots of the equation are

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p1 ,p2 =
− ±

2
R
L √( ) R 2 4
L
−
LC

R
=− ±
2L √( )
R 2 1
2L
−
LC

( )
R 2 1
Case (i): when 2L
>
LC
Then roots are real and unequal. They give overdamped response

Case (ii): when

( )
R 2 1
2L
<
LC
Roots are complex conjugate and give underdamped response i

Case (iii): when

( )
R 2 1
2L
=
LC
i
The roots are equal and give critically damped response

Analysis of networks by Laplace Transform Method

Ideal energy sources which were given in time domain as v(t) and i(t) can be represented by
their transforms V(s)=L{v(t)} and I(s)=L{i(t)
Elements Laplace representation

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V(t)=Ri(t)
V(s)=RI(s)

di
v (t )=L
dt

V ( s)=L [ sI( s)−i(0−) ]

t
1
i(t )= ∫ v (τ )dτ+i(0−)
L 0−

V ( s) i(0−)
I (s)= +
sL s
t
1
v (t )= ∫ i(τ )dτ+v (0−)
C0

I ( s) v (0−)
V ( s)= +
Cs s

dv
i(t )=C
dt

I (s)=c [ sV (s)−v (0−) ]

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