Psychology 101-2.

2: memory (MR1-module 6)
Concept Definition
memory An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it
as it stores away and retrieves the information from the storage
Process of memory Process of Description
memory
encoding Set of mental operation people perform on sensory
information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage
systems
storage Holding on to information for some period of time
retrieval Getting information that is in storage into a form that can be
used
Models of memory Memory model Description
Information- Assumes the processing of information for memory
processing model storage which is similar to the way a computer processes
memory in a series of three stages
Parallel a model of memory in which memory processes are
distributed proposed to take place at the same time over a large
process (PDP) network of neural connections
model
Levels-of- model of memory that assumes information that is more
processing model “deeply processed,” or processed according to its meaning
rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the
word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and
for a longer period of time
Information-Processing model
Concept Definition
Information-processing model - Looks at how memory and other thought processes work
- Bases its model for human thought on the way that a computer functions
Three-stage process of memory

- Information enters through the sensory system

- Information will enter and be stored
Sensory memory Very first stage of memory
- Raw information from senses is held for very brief period of time
Iconic memory Visual sensory memory lasting only fraction of a second;
Eidetic imagery Ability to access a visual sensory memory over a long period of time; photographic memory
Echoic memory Auditory sensory memory, lasting only 2-4 seconds; useful when a person wants to have a meaningful conversation
with others; allows the person to remember what someone said just long enough to recognize meaning of a phrase
Short-term memory
Concept Definition
Short-term memory The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used; tends to be encoded
primarily in auditory form
Selective attention Ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Broadbent’s filter theory States that a bottleneck occurs between the processes of sensory memory and short-term memory; only an important
stimulus will make it past the bottleneck to be consciously analyzed for meaning in STM
Cocktail-party effect important bit of information (your name) “appeared,” those areas somehow filtered the information into your
conscious awareness—in spite of the fact that you were not paying conscious attention to the other background noise
Dr. Anne M. Treisman on selective - Proposes how selective attention operates in a two stage filtering process: (i) incoming stimuli in sensory
attention memory are filtered on the basis of simple physical characteristic and (ii) only stimuli that meet a certain
threshold of importance are processed
Working memory an active system that processes the information in short-term memory
Maintenance rehearsal Practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-
term memory
long-term memory
Concept Definition
long-term memory System of memory into which all information is placed to be kept more or less permanently
Elaborative rehearsal Method of transferring information from short-term memory into long-term memory by masking that information
meaningful in some way
Nondeclarative (implicit) memory Type of long-term memory including memory of skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses; memories are
not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior
- Are not easily retrieved into conscious awareness
Declarative (explicit) memory Type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known
Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from point of injury or trauma forward or the inability to form new long-term memories
Semantic memory Type of declarative memory containing general knowledge such as knowledge of language and information learned in
formal education
Episodic memory Type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others (e.g., daily activities and
events)
Summary on long-term memory

Semantic network model model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts
that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related
Summary
Retrieval of long-term memories
Concept Definition
Encoding specificity the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological
state) that is available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.
State-dependent learning - Form of encoding specificity where memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological
state will be easier to remember while in a similar state
recall type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few
external cues
recognition the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
Serial position effect tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than
information in the middle of the body of information
 - information at the beginning of a list will be recalled at a higher rate than information in the middle of the
list (primacy effect), because the beginning information receives more rehearsal and may enter LTM
- information at the end of a list is also retrieved at a higher rate (recency effect), because the end of the list is
still in STM, with no information coming after it to interfere with retrieval.
Primacy effect tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows
long enough to recognize meaning of a phrase
Recency effect tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information that precedes it
Automatic encoding: flashbulb memories
Concept Definition
Automatic encoding tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding
Flashbulb memories type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person
remembering it
Constructive processing referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer
information.
Hindsight bias the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have
correctly predicted the outcome of an even
Misinformation effect the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.
False memory syndrome Refers to the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others; while the person is under
hypnosis
two steps that must occur before (i) event must be made to seem as plausible as possible
people will be likely to interpret (ii) Individuals are given information that helps them believe that the event could have happened to them
their thoughts and fantasies about personally
false events as true memories
Reliability of memory retrieval false memories can result from change in both waking, conscious states and in altered states (e.g., hypnosis)
Summary

Forgetting
Concept Definition
Curve of forgetting A graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then
tappers off gradually
Distributed practice Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
Encoding failure Failure to process information into memory
Memory trace Physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed
Decay theory Loss of memory due to the passage of time during which the memory trace is not used
Disuse theory Another name for decay in context of long-term memory; assumes that memories that are not used will eventually
decay and disappear
Interference type description
 Proactive interference memory problem that occurs when older
information prevents or interferes with
the learning or retrieval of newer
information
Retroactive interference memory problem that occurs when
newer information prevents or interferes
with the retrieval of older information
Reasons for forgetting

Biological basis of memory

Concept Definition
consolidation Changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neutrons when a memory is formed
Six molecular mechanisms Where changes underlying plasticity and memory storage have been attributed; signify information changing from
(cAMP, PKA, CRE, CREB-1 and short-term memory to long-term memory and apply both to explicit and implicit memory
CREB-2 and CPEB)
Hippocampus Identified as part of the brain responsible for the formation of new long-term declarative memories
Posterior cingulate Area of the cortex located near the rear of the corpus callosum which is involved in the formation of long-term
memories
Biological causes of amnesia
Concept Definition
Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past
Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from the point of injury from the point of injury or illness forward
Senile dementia A mental disorder in which severe forgetfulness, mental confusion and mood swing are the primary symptoms
Alzheimer’s disease Primary memory problem in the beginning involves anterograde amnesia; memories of the past seem to being
“erasing” as retrograde amnesia also takes hold
Infantile amnesia Type of memory that exists in the first few years of life; inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
Autobiographical memory Memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story