EEC 123 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1. Understand the construction, principles

of operation, characteristic of DC Machines
2. Understand the basic principles of a transformer and applications

PREPARED BY ENGR OJO OLUMAYOWA AYOTUNDE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE DC Machines

1.0 General Introduction
1.1 Construction of DC Machines
1.2 Armature and Field Windings
1.3 DC Generators
1.4 DC Motors
1.5 Characteristics of DC machines

CHAPTER TWO Transformers

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Principle of Operation
2.2 Construction and Types of Transformers
2.3 Ideal Transformer vs Practical Single Phase Transformer
2.4 E.M.F Equation of Transformer
2.5 Transformer On load and No Load
2.6 Efficiency of Transformers
2.7 Applications of Transformers
Chapter One DC Machines

1.0 General Introduction

There has been widespread use of electric machines in industries and household appliances.
Electric machines play an important role in industry as well as in our day-to-day life. They are
used in power plants to generate electrical power, and in industry to provide mechanical work,
such as in steel mills, textile mills, and paper mills. They are an indispensable part of our daily
lives.
An electrical machine is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electrical energy
(generator) or electrical energy to mechanical energy (motor). An electric machine is therefore
a link between an electrical system and a mechanical system.

Fig 1 Electrical Machine

In these machines the conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical to
electrical,the machine is said to act as a generator. Hence, the same electric machine can be
made to operate as a generator as well as a motor.
The transformer is an electrical device that is closely related to electrical machines. It converts
AC electrical energy at one voltage level to AC electrical energy at another voltage
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from one form
to another in motors, generators, and transformers.
Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that coil.
(This is the basis of transformer action.)
3. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. (This is the basis
of generator action.)
4. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This is
the basis of motor action.) be used as either a generator or a motor.

1.1 Construction of DC Machines

The DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic
constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. The DC machine mainly
consists of two parts; stator and rotor
Stator: This part of the machine does not move and normally is the outer
frame of the machine. Stator houses the field winding which is the source of magnetic flux
in the DC machine
Rotor: This part of the machine is free to move and normally is the inner part
of the machine. It contains slots to carry armature windings and provides the rotating
element in the DC machine

Fig 2 Constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. Basic
constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It
not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They
carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they
support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on
each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they
form alternate North and South poles. It produce the magnetic flux.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft. Armature core provides house for armature winding
and a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots.
The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. The
functions are: Generation of emf (generators), carry current supplied, do useful work in external
circuit.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator is to facilitate collection of
current from the armature conductors .It converts the alternating current induced in the armature
conductors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. Whereas, in case of a dc motor,
commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a
set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to
the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator
is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on
commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the
physical contact to collect or supply the current. The brushes helps to collect current from
commutator and makes it available to a stable external circuit

1.2 Armature and Field Windings

In a dc machine, the armature winding is placed on the rotor and the field
windings are placed on the stator. In most machines, slots are cut on the
inner periphery of the stator and outer periphery of the rotor structure,
conductors are placed in these slots.
The conductors placed in the slots of the stator or rotor are interconnected to
form windings. The winding in which voltage is induced is called the
armature winding. The winding through which a current is passed to produce
the primary source of flux in the machine is called the field winding.
There are various ways to construct an armature winding. Before these are
discussed, some basic components of the armature winding and terms
related to it are defined. A turn consists of two conductors connected to one
end by an end connector.A coil is formed by connecting several turns in
series. A winding is formed by connecting several coils in series .The turn,
coil, and winding are shown schematically in Figure below. The beginning of
the turn, or coil, is identified by the symbol S, and the end of the turn or coil
by the symbol F.

Based on type of winding connections we classified armature winding of a dc machine into two
types. These winding connections are same for DC generator & DC motor.
Types of Windings in DC Machine,
1. Lap winding.
2. Wave winding.
Lap winding of a DC Machine
In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and
to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected.
This type of winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap each other
Lap winding may be simplex (single) or multiplex (duplex or triplex) winding. In simplex lap
winding the connection of the winding is that there are as many parallel paths as there are
number of poles.
Whereas for duplex, the number of parallel paths are equal to twice that of the number of poles
and for triplex it is thrice. For this reason, the lap winding is called multiple or parallel winding.
The sole purposes of such type of windings are,
(a) To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for
high current output.
(b) To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases
The total number of poles are equal to the total number of brushes. In lap winding, Number of
parallel path (A) = Number of poles (P). Lap winding is used for low voltage and high current
machines
Wave winding of a DC Machine
In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series
circuit and the carrying current in opposite direction are connected in another series circuit
The winding is called a wave winding, because the coils are laid down in a
wave pattern
In wave winding number of parallel paths is two (A=2). and there may be two or more
brush positions
The number of brushes required are two irrespective of the number of poles . Since a wave
winding is a series winding, it is used for high voltage and low current machine

1.2 DC Generators
DC generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. DC
generators may be divided into, (a) separately excited dc generators, and (b) self excited dc
generators.
(a) Separately excited dc generators
Separately excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an independent
external source of dc current.
b) Self excited dc generators
Self excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced by
the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the
poles. When the armature is rotated, some emf and hence some current flows which is partly or
fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
There are three types of self excited dc generators named according to the manner in which
their field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature. In shunt the two windings, field
and armature are in parallel while in series type the two windings are in series. In compound
type the part of the field winding is in parallel while other part in series with the armature
winding.
Equivalent circuits
Separately excited

Shunt

Series

Hence, the relationship between the current, the emf and other parameters
when a machine is operating as a generator can be expressed as:
V= , = Emf generated in armature , V = Terminal
voltage ,

= Armature current , = Resistance of armature circuit

Principle of Operation of DC generator

The DC generator operates on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf .This
principle is nothing but the Faradays law of Electromagnetic induction which states that
whenever the number of magnetic lines of force i.e flux linking with a conductor or coil changes
an electromotive force is setup in that conductor, which will cause a flow of current in the
conductor if the circuit is closed. So a generating action requires the following basic
components: (i) Conductor or coil (ii)The flux (iii)Relative motion between conductor and flux.
In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are
rotated into the field.The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. The
magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator
DC Motors
Chapter Two Transformers
2.0 Introduction
A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase
incurrent. Transformers are electric devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy by means of changing magnetic field.
A transformer is a device that:
(1) Transfers electric power from one circuit to another
(2) Transfer electric power without a change in frequency
(3) Transfers with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(4) The two electric circuits are linked by mutual induction influence on each other
2.1 Principle of Operation
A transformer operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction in the form of mutual
induction. Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces voltage
in another coil located close to it. The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual
inductance between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. A transformer consists of
two inductive coils which are electrical separate and inductive, but magnetically linked. When an
alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets
up a magnetic field around itself called mutual inductance. It essentially consists of two
windings, primary and secondary wound on a laminated magnetic core. The winding connected
to the a.c source is the primary winding while the one connected to the load is called the
secondary winding.

The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to change is applied to the primary

depending on the number of turns on the primary N1AND SECONDARY N2,an alternating emf
is induced in the secondary. This induced emf E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current
i2. Consequently terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load. If V2 is greater than V1, it is
called a step up transformer, if V2 is less than V1 it is called step down transformer. When an
altenating voltage V1 is applied to the primary an alternating flux f is set up in the core. This
alternating flux links both the windings and induces emf E1 and E2 in them according to
Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction. The emf E1 is termed primary emf and E2 is
termed secondary emf .
2.2 Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one that has
(i) No winding resistance (ii) No leakage flux i.e the same flux links both the windings (iii)no
iron losses i .e eddy current and hysteresis loss.
Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized yet its study provides a very powerful
tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact practical transformer have properties that
approach very close to an ideal transformer.

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e secondary is open circuited as shown in i above.
Under such conditions the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When an alternating
voltage is V1 is applied to the primary it draws a magnetizing current Im which lags behind the
applied voltage by 90.This alternating current Im produces an alternating flux O which is
proportional and in phase with it. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces emf
E1 in the primary and E2 in the secondary.The primary emf E1 is at every instant equal to and in
opposition to V1. Both emf E1 and E2 lag behind the flux by 90.However their magnitudes
depend upon the number of primary and secondary turns.
2.3 E.M.F Equation of a Transformer
2.4 Construction and Types of transformers
The main parts of a transformer are
(1) Two windings (primary and secondary )
(2) Laminated steel core
(3)Suitable container for assembled core and winding
(4)Suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its container
(5) suitable bushings for insulating and bringing out the terminals of the windings from the bank.
The core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations having high silicon content
assembled to provide a continous magnetic path.
Constructionally, the transformers are of two types , distinguished from each other by the manner
in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. They are:
(1) Core type – in which the windings surround a considerable part of the core .The coils are
form wound and of cylindrical shape. On core type low voltage windings is placed next to the
core and the high voltage winding is on the outside due to low insulating material required to
insulate the L.V winding from the core than. Core type is suitable for high voltage transformer.
(2) Shell type – in which the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. In this case
also coils are form wound but are multi layer disc type. A shell type transformer may have a
simple rectangular form .Shell type of construction uses a three legged core and sandwich
windings placed on central leg. Shell type is suitable for low voltage transformer .

(2) Shell type – in which the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. In this case
also coils are form wound but are multi layer disc type. A shell type transformer may have a
simple rectangular form .Shell type of construction uses a three legged core and sandwich
windings placed on central leg. Shell type is suitable for low voltage transformer .
Single Phase Transformer

The major parts of a single phase transformer consists of :

1. Core – The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer ,it also provides low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core and the core is
made up of laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors
such as operating voltage ,current, power decide core composition. The core diameter is
directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are
used due to (1) High conductivity – This minimizes losses in the transformer. Since conductivity
increases resistance to current flow increases. (2) High ductility – ductility is the property of
metals that they can made into thin wires. There are mainly two types of windings:
Primary windings – The set of turns of windings to which supply current is feed
Secondary windings – The set of turns of windings from which output is taken.
The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating
agents

3. insulation agents- Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from

shorting the circuit and thus facilitating mutual induction. The following are used as an
insulation medium in a transformer: insulating oil, insulating tape,wood based
lamination
.