Work & Energy & Power [Lecture Note]

BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE LT-23 PHYSICS (ONLINE)
CHAPTER - 00
WORK ENERGY POWER
The term ‘work’, ‘energy’ and ‘power’ are frequently used in everyday language. A farmer ploughing the
field, a studying for a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautiful landscape, all are said to be
working. In physics, however, the word covers a definite and precise meaning
Work
* Work is said to be done whenever a force acts on a body and the body moves through some distance
in the direction of the force
* For work to be done, following two conditions must be satisfied
i) A force must be applied
ii) The point of application of the force move in the direction of the force
* Work done by a constant force
Case-1
When applied force and displacement are in same direction
Consider a block which is placed at a point A. Let a horizontal force acts on the body. Then the new
position of block is B. The displacement of the body is s.
Then the work done by the applied force is given by W = Fs
Case-2
When applied force and displacement are not in same direction.
Consider a block which is placed in a horizontal surface. Let F be the force acting on the block at an
angle  with the horizontal.
In this case work is not the product of force and the displacement of the object.
1
Let us resolve the vector quantity force into its vector components. Then Fcos  is along the direction
of displacement and Fsin  is perpendicular to the direction of displacement.
We can see that the only component of force that produces the displacement is Fcos 
Then work done is W  F  s  Fcos  s

W  Fscos 

In vector notation, we can write W  F.s
Since the dot product of any two vectors is scalar. work is a scalar quantity.
Types of work
Although work done is a scalar quantity, its value may be positive, negative or zero
Positive work
* If a force acting on a body has a component in the direction of the displacement, then the work done by
the force is positive.
* When  us acute, cos  is positive.
 W  Fs cos  = a positive value

Condition for positive work 0o    90o
Eg.
1) When a body falls freely under gravity the work done by the gravity is positive
2) When a horse pulls a cart, the applied force and displacement are in the same directions, then the
work done by the horse is positive
3) When a spring is stretched, work done by the applied force agent is positive
Negative Work
If a force acting on the body has a component in the opposite direction of displacement, the work done
is negative.
* When  is obtuse, cos  is negative
 W  Fs cos  = a negative value

Condition for negative work 90o    180o
2
Eg.
1) When a body slides against a rough horizontal surface, its displacement is opposite to the force of
friction. The work done by the friction is negative.
2) When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the work done by the braking force is negative
3) When a body is lifted, the work done by the gravitational force is negative
Zero work
Work done by force is zero, if the body gets displaced along a direction perpendicular to the direction
of the applied force.
 
* Work done is also zero if F or s or both are zero
 
Condition for zero work :   90o or s  0 or F  0
Eg.
1) For a body moving in a circular path, the centripetal force and displacement are perpendicular to
each other. So the work done by the centripetal force is zero.
2) When a coolie walks on a horizontal platform with a load on his head, he applied a force on it in the
upward direction equal to its weight. The displacement of the load is along the horizontal direction.
 
Thus the angle between F and S is 90o. Then the work done by the coolie on the load is zero.
3) The tension in the string of a simple pendulum is always perpendicular to its displacement. So the
work done by the tension is zero.
4) The work done in pushing an immovable stone is zero, because the displacement of the stone is
zero.
* Dimensional formula of work
W  F  s =  MLT   L 
2
2 2
=  ML T 
* Units of work
Joule : It is the unit of work in SI.
One Joule of work is said to be done when a force of one Newton displaces a body through a distance
of one metre in its own direction.
1 Joule = 1 Newton  1 metre
1 J = 1 Nm
Erg : It is the unit of work in CGS system
One erg of work is said to be done if a force of one dyne displaces a body through a distance of one
centimetre in its own direction
1 erg = 1 dyne  1 cm
3
Relation between joule and erg

1 Joule = 1Newton  1metre
= 105 dyne  102 cm
= 107 dyne cm
= 107 erg
1 Joule  107 erg
Gravitational units of work

1. Kilogram metre
One kilogram metre of work is said to be done when a force of one kilogram weight displaces a body
through one metre in its own direction.
1 kg m = 1 kg wt  1cm
= 9.8N  1m
= 9.8 J
2. Gram centimetre
One gram centimetre of work is said to be done when a force of one gram weight displaces a body
through one centimetre in its own direction
1 kg cm = 1 g wt  1cm
= 980dyne  1cm
= 980 erg
Work done in terms of rectangular components
In terms of rectangular components, force and displacement vectors can be written as

F  Fx î  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ

S  Sx iˆ  Sy ˆj  S2 kˆ

 
W  F.S  Fx î  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ . Sx î  Sy ˆj  S2 kˆ 
= Fx S x  FySy  FzSz
Work done by a variable force

Suppose a variable force F acts on body along the fixed direction, say x axis. Let us calculate the work
done when the body moves from initial position xi to the find position xf under the force F.
4
The displacement can be divided into large number of small equal displacements x , the force F can
be assumed to be constant. Then the work done is
W  Fx  Area of rectangle

Adding areas of all rectangles. We get total work done
xf
W   Fx = sum of areas of all rectangles erected over all the small displacement
xi
From the figure, it is seen that when x is increases, the area of the curve decreases. Then work
done will be lesser than the actual work.
 To set the actual valve of work, x should tends to zero.
When x  0 , the number of rectangles tends to be infinite, then the above summation approaches
a definite integral. The value of definite integral is equal to the area under the curve.
xf xf
W  lim
x  0
 Fx   Fdx
xi xi
Hence for varying force, the work done is equal to the definite integral of the force over the given
displacement.
Work is relative
Work done by a force depends up on the frame of reference.

1) If a person is pushing a box inside a moving train, the work done in the frame of train will F.s where
  
F is the applied force and s be the displacement of box. In the frame of earth, work will be F.  s  s0  ,

where s0 is the displacement of the train relative to the ground.
2) Suppose s and s/ are two frames of reference. s/ is moving withy a constant velocity v with respect
to s. A block m is placed in s frame which is initially at rest. It is acted upon by a constant force F.
5
In s frame
Work done by F in time t
W = F.s
 1 F 2  F2 t 2
F.
=  o.t   t 
 2 m  2m
In s ' frame
Work done by F in time t
W / = Fs/
 1 F 2
= F   vt  t 
 2m 
Clearly W W
Work done by friction
There is a misconception that the force of friction always does negative work. In reality, the work done
by friction may be zero, positive or negative depending up on the situation.
1) When a block is pulled by a force and the block does not move, the work done by friction is zero
2) When block is pulled by a force F on a stationary surface, the work done by the kinetic friction is
negative.
3) Block A is placed on the block B. When the block A is pulled with force F, the friction force does
negative work on block A and positive work on block B, which is being accelerated by a force F. The
displacement of A relative to the table is in the forward direction. The work done by kinetic friction on
block B is positive.
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Energy
Energy of a body is defined as the capacity or ability to do work
 Like work, energy is a scalar quantity
 Unit and dimension of energy is same as that of work
SI unit - Joule
CGS unit - erg
2 2
Dimension -  ML T 
Some other units of work or energy
Sl.No. Unit Symbol Value in SI
-7
1 erg erg 10 J
1.6 10
-19
2 electron volt eV J
3 calorie cal 4.186 J
4 kilowatt hour kWh 3.6 106 J
KINETIC ENERGY
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy. A moving object can
do work. The amount of work that a moving object can do before coming to rest is equal to kinetic
energy
Expression for kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a body is equal to the amount of work required to bring the body into motion from
its state of rest.
Consider a body of mass m which is initially at rest. Let a constant force is applied on the body. If v be
the velocity of the body after covering a distance s from initial position
7
v 2  u 2  2as
v2
u=0 2
v  2as a
2s
As the force and displacement are in same direction
W = Fs
= ma.s
v2
= m s
2s
1
W mv 2
2
Thus work done appears as kinetic energy of the body
Relation between KE and linear momentum
1
KE  mv 2
2
multiply and divide by m
1 m
 mv 2 
2 m
1 m2 v2
 Since p = mv
2 m
p2  m 2 v 2
1 p2
KE 
2m
P  2m  KE 
Various groups of kinetic energy

1. Graph between KE and velocity, when mass is constant
2. Graph between KE and momentum when mass is constant
3. Graph between KE and mass when momentum is constant
4. Graph between KE and p when mass is constant
8
KE  v 2 , KE  p 2 ,
1) 2)
m  cons tan t m  cons tan t
1
KE  , p  KE,
3) m 4)
p  cons tan t m  cons tan t
Work Energy Theorem

It states that the work done by the net force acting on a body is equal to the change produced in the
kinetic energy of the body.
Work energy theorem for a constant force
Suppose a constant force F acting on a body of mass m produces acceleration a in it. After covering
distance s, suppose the velocity of the body changes from u to v. The equation of motion
v 2  u 2  2as
v 2  u 2  2as
1
Multiply both sides by m
2
1 1 1
mv 2  mu 2  m  2as
2 2 2
1 1
mv 2  mu 2  F  s
2 2
Change in KE = W
Thus the change in KE of the body is equal to the work done on the body by the net force.
Work Energy Theorem for a variable force
 
Suppose a variable force F acts on a body of mass m and produces displacement ds in its own
direction.
The small work done is
 
dw  F.ds  Fds cos 0o  Fds
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According to Newton’s second law of motion
dv
F  ma  m
dt
dv ds
dw  m .ds v
dt dt
ds
= mdv.
dt
= mdv.v
dw = mv.dv
If the applied force increases the velocity from u to v, then the total work done on the body will be
v v
W   dw   mv dv  m  vdv
u u
v
 v2  1 2 1 2
=    mv  mu
m
 2 u 2 2
W = KEf  KEi
Stopping a vehicle by Retarding force

If a vehicle move with some initial velocity and due to some retarding force it stops after covering some
distance after some time.
Stopping distance
W = change in KE
W = KEi – KEf
1 1
W mv 2  mu 2
2 2
1
KE f  mv 2  0
2
1
W mv 2
2
1
F s  mv 2
2
1 mv 2
s
2 F
10
Stopping time
By the impulse-momentum theorem
F  t  p
F  t  mu  mv
But mv = 0
F  t  mv
mv
t
F
Two vehicles of masses m1 and m2 are moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively. When they are
stopped by the same retarding force (F). Then
1 2 
 2 mv1 
 
 F  2
x1    m1v1

x 1 2  m 2 v 22
The ratio of their stopping distance 2  m 2 v 2 
2
 
 F 
 
 m1v1 
t1  F  m1 v1
 
The ratio of stopping time t 2  m 2 v 2  m 2 v 2
 F 
 
 If vehicle is stopped by friction, then
1 1 1
mv 2 mv 2 mv 2
stopping distance = 2 2  2
F ma m  g
v2
s since a  g
2g
mv mv mv v
Stopping time t    
F ma mg g
v
t
g
11
 If vehicle possess same velocities

v1 = v 2
1
m v2
2 1
x1 F m
  1
x 2 1 m v2 m2
2 2
F
m1v
t1 m
 F  1
t2 m 2 v m2
F
 If vehicle possess same momentum
p12
x1 2m1  F m 2
 
x2 p 22 m1 Since p1 = p2
2m 2  F
p1
t1
 F 1
t 2 p2 since p1 = p2
F
 If vehicle possess same kinetic energy
KE1
x1
 F 1
x 2 KE 2 since KE1 = KE2
F
t1 p1 2m1  KE  m1
  
t 2 p2 2m 2  KE  m2
Potential energy
Potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position or
state of strain.
12
Gravitational potential energy

It is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the surface of the earth
Consider a body of mass m lying on the surface of the earth. Let the body is raised vertically to a height
h. Then work has to be done against the force of gravity.
W  Fs
= mg  h
W = mgh
The work done to raise the object through a height h is stored as energy. This energy is called potential
energy.
If the surface of earth h = 0, W  mg  0  0
 Gravitational potential energy at the surface of earth is zero
W  PE  mgh
Conservative Force
 A force is conservative, if the work done by the force in displacing a particle from one point to another
is independent of the path followed by the particle and depends only on the end point.
Suppose a particle moves from point A to point B along either path 1 or 2. If a conservative force F acts
on the particle, then the work done on the particle is same along two points
Mathematically W AB (along path 1) = W AB (along path 2)

 Also, a force is said to be conservative, work done by the force to move a particle along a closed path
is zero
Now suppose the particle moves in a round trip, from point A to point B along path 1 and then back to
point A along path 2. For a conservative force,
Work done on the particle along the path 1 from A to B = – work done on the particle along the path 2
from B to A
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W AB (along path 1) = –W BA(along path 2)

W closed path = 0
Conservative nature of gravitational force
Suppose a body of mass m is raised to a height h vertically upwards from position A to B. The work
done against gravity W  F  s
= mg  h
Now suppose the body is taken from position A to B along the path ACDEB as shown in figure. During
horizontal path CD and EB, the force of gravity is perpendicular to the displacement, so work done is
zero. Work is done along vertical paths AC and DE. The total work done is
W  WAC  WCD  WDE  WEB
= mg  AC  0  mg  DE  0
= mg(AC + DE) Ac + DE = h
W = mgh
Suppose a ball is thrown vertically upward. As it rises, the gravitational force does negative work on it,
decreasing its kinetic energy. As the ball descends, the gravitational force does positive work on it,
increasing its kinetic energy. The ball falls back to the point of projection with the same velocity and KE
with which it was thrown up. The net work done by the gravitational force on the ball during the round
trip is zero. This again shows that the gravitational force is a conservative force.
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 Examples of conservative force : Gravitational force, electrostatic force, elastic force of a spring,
magnetic force, centripetal force
Nonconservative force
If the amount of work done in moving an object against a force from one point to another point depends
on the path along which the body moves, then such a force is called a non-conservative force.
Also if a force is said to be non conservative force work done by the force to move a particle along a
closed path or round trip is zero.
Examples of nonconservative force: Forces of friction and viscosity,
If a body is moved from position A to another position B on a rough table, work done against frictional
force shall depends on the length of the path between A and B and not only the position A and B
WAB  mgs
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, work has to be done against the frictional
force, which always opposes the motion. Hence the work done against the friction over a round trip is
not zero.
WBA  mgs
Wnet  WAB  WBA  mgs  mgs  2mgs

Therefore the friction is a nonconservative force
Relation between potential energy and conservative force
Potential energy comes into play when a work is done against conservative force
When we does work on a particle against conservative force, the change in potential energy of particle
is equal to the negative of the work done by the conservative force
U  w
But W  F  x  dx

U    F  x  dx
On differentiating the above equal
d
 U   F  x 
dx
d  U 
F x 
dx
15
Hence we may define conservative force is equal to the negative gradient of potential energy.
Potential Energy curve
A graph plotted between the potential energy of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force
is called potential energy curve. Figure shows a graph of potential energy function U(x) for one
dimensional motion. The negative gradient of the potential energy gives force
dv
F
dx
Nature of force
1) Attractive force
On increasing x, if U increases
dU
= positive, then F is in negative direction
dx
i.e. force is attractive in nature. In graph this is represented in region BC
2) Repulsive force
dU
On increasing x, if U decreases = negative, then F is in positive direction.
dx
i.e. Force is repulsive in nature. In graph, this is represented in region AB
3) Zero force
dU
On increasing x, if U does not change =0
dx
then F is zero.
i.e. no force works on the particle. Point B,C and D represents the point of zero force or these points
can be termed as position of equilibrium
Types of equilibrium
If the net force acting on a particle is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium
dU
For equilibrium = 0, but the equilibrium of particle can be three types
dx
1) Stable equilibrium
16
2) Unstable equilibrium
3) Neutral equilibrium
Stable Unstable Neutral
When a particle is slightly

When a particle is displaced slightly displaced from
When a particle is displaced slightly
from a position, then a force acting on a position then it does not
from a position, then a foce acting on it
it tries to displace the particle further experience any force acting on it
brings it back to the initial position, it is
away from the equilibrium position it is and continues to be in equilibrium
said to be in stable equilibrium position
said to be in unstable equilibrium in the displaced position, it is said
to be in neutral equilibrium
Potential energy is minimum Potential energy is maximum Potential energy is constant
dU dU  dU
F 0 F 0 F 0
dx dx dx
d2 U d2 U d2 U
 positive  negative 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
dU dU is negative i.e., rate of change of dU is zero
i.e., rate of change of is positive i.e., rate of change of
dx dx dx
Potential energy of a spring

Consider an elastic spring of negligible small mass with its one end attached to a rigid support. It’s
other end is attached to a block of mass m which can slide over a smooth horizontal surface. The
position x = 0 is the equilibrium position as shown in figure.
When the spring is stretched or compressed by pulling or pushing the block a spring.
17
Force Fs begin to act to the spring towards the equilibrium position. According to Hooke’s law, the
spring force Fs is proportional to the displacement of the block from the equilibrium position
Fs  x or Fs  kx
The proportionality constant K is called spring constant. It’s SI unit is Nm–1. The negative sign shows
that Fs acts in the opposite direction of x,
The work done by the spring force for the small extension dx is dws = Fxdx=-kxdx
If the block moved from initial displacement xi to find displacement xf, the work done by the spring force
is
xf xf
 x2 
w s   dw s    kx dx   k  
xi  2  xi
1 1
Ws  Kx i2  Kx f2
2 2
Properties of spring force
1) Spring force is position dependent (Fs = -Kx)
2) Work done by spring force depends on initial and final positions
3) Work done by spring force in a cyclic process is zero
 The potential energy of a spring is zero when the black is in equilibrium position. The PE of spring for
1
an extension x will be U  Kx 2
2
PE of an elastic stretched spring by graphical method
According to Hooke’s law, the spring force for an extension xm is Fs = -kxm
18
If k = 1, Fs = -xm
The figure shows the plot of spring force Fs versus displacement x of a block attached to the free end
of the spring. Let us consider the area of shaded region
1 1
= bh   Fs x m
2 2
1
=    kx m  x m
2
12
=  kx m
2
1 2
kx is the work done by the external source
2
 Area of force displacement graph gives work done by the spring force
Properties of conservative forces
1) A force F is conservative, if it can be defined from the potential energy function by the relation
dU  x 
F x 
dx
2) Work done by a conservative force on an object is path independent and depends only in the end
points.
W  U
W    Uf  Ui   Ui  Uf
3) The work done by the conservative force is zero if the object moving around any closed path returns
to its initial position
W   F d x  0
4) If only conservative forces are acting on body, then its total mechanical energy is conserved
Mechanical energy (ME)
The energy produced by mechanical means is called mechanical energy. It has two forms
1) Kinetic energy (KE)
2) Potential energy (PE)
ME = KE + PE
ME is a scalar quantity
It depends on frame of reference
A body can have ME without having either KE or PE. However, if both PE and KE are zero, ME will be
zero KE is always positive, but PE can be positive, and negative. Then negative mechanical energy
implies that PE is negative in magnitude and it is more than KE, such a state is called bound state
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Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

This principle states that if only the conservative force are doing work on a body, then its total mechanical
energy is constant
KE + PE = constant
Conservation of mechanical energy in a freely falling body
Consider a body of mass m lying at position A at a height h above the ground. As the body falls, its KE
increases at the expense of potential energy. Consider three points A,B and C in the path of freely
falling body.
At point A
Body is at rest u = 0
1
KE  m  02  0
2
PE = mgh
TE = KE + PE = 0 + mgh = mgh
At point B
Suppose the body falls freely through height x and reaches the point B with velocity v
v2  U2  2as
v 2  02  2  g  x
v 2  2gx
1 1
KE  mv 2  m  2gx  mgx
2 2
TE  mgx  mgh  mgx  mgh
At point C
Suppose the body finally reaches a point C on the ground with velocity v. Then considering motion
20
from A to C
v2  U2  2as
v 2  02  2  g  h
v 2  2gh
1 1
KE  mv 2  m  2gh  mgh
2 2
PE = 0
TE = mgh + 0 = mgh
Clearly, as the body falls, PE decreases and KE increases by an equal amount. However total
mechanical energy remains constant at all point. Thus mechanical energy is conserved during the
free fall of a body. Figure shows the variation of KE and PE and the constancy of total energy with
height.
Conservation of mechanical energy in projectile motion

1) PE = mgH
u 2 sin 2 
H
2g
u 2 sin 2  1
PE  mg   mu 2 sin 2 
2g 2
21
At the highest point, velocity of projectile is along horizontal v  u cos 
1 1
KE  mv 2  m  u 2 cos 2 
2 2
1 1 1
TE = KE + PE = mu 2 cos 2   mu 2 sin 2   mu 2
2 2 2
2) At point of projection
If the initial velocity of projectile is u
1
KE  mu 2
2
PE = 0
1
TE  mu 2
2
3) At point B
Since the landing velocity of projectile of point B is u
1
KE  mu 2
2
PE = 0
1
TE  mu 2
2
Thus total energy at any point in the path of projectile is constant
Conservation of mechanical energy in oscillating pendulum
Consider an oscillating pendulum A be the extreme position and C be the mean position.
22
TEA = KE + PE
= 0 + mgh1
TEC = KE + PE
1
= mv 2c  mg  0
2
1
mv 2c
2
1
TEA = TEC  mgh1  mvc2
2
2gh1  vc
h1     cos 1
h1   1  cos 1 
v c  2g 1  cos 1 
1
TE B  mv B2  mgh 2
2
TE B   TE  A
1
mv 2B  mgh 2  mgh1
2
1
mv 2B  mg  h1  h 2 
2
v B  2g  h1  h 2   2g     cos 1     cos 2 
v B  2g  cos 2  cos 1 
 If a pendulum of length  is held horizontal as shown in figure and released
23
TEA = KE + PE
= 0 + mgl =mgl
TEB = KE + PE
1
= mv 2  mg  0
2
1
= mv 2
2
TEA = TEB
1
mg  mv 2
2
v  2g
Motion of a particle in a vertical circle

Consider a body tied to a string and whirled in circular path. Consider three points A,B and C on the
circle
24
At point A
mv 2
T1  mg 
r
Where m is the mass of body, v1 is the velocity at bottom, r is the radius and T1 is the tension at A
At point B
mv 22
mg  T2 
r
v2 is the velocity at point B
mv12
T1   mg .............. (1)
r
mv 22
T2   mg ..............(2)
r
mv12 mv 22
T1  T2   mg   mg
r r
m 2
2mg 
r
 v1  v 22  ...................(3)
1
TE A  mv12
2
1
TE B  mv 22  mg  2r
2
TE = constant
TEA = TEB
1 1
mv12  mv 22  2mgr
2 2
1 2
2
 v1  v22   2gr
v12  v 22  4gr ...................(4)
On substituting in (3)
m
T1  T2  2mg   4gr 
r
T1 – T2 = 6mg
25
Let’s assume T2 = 0
Then T1  6mg
From (2)
mv 22
0  mg
r
mv 22
mg 
r
v 2  rg
Subsiting in (4)
v12  rg  4gr
v1  5gr
1
TE C  mv32  mgr
2
TE C  TE A
1 1
mv32  mgr  mv12
2 2
1 1
mv32  mgr  m  5gr
2 2
v32  3gr
v3  3gr
At point C
mv32
T3 
r
3gr
T3  m   3mg
r
Where T3 is the tension at point C
 Consider another position of body in its vertical circular path
26
TE at point P
mv2
T  mg cos  
r
Where v is the velocity of particle point P
mv2
T  mg cos 
r
Conservation of energy in an elastic spring
1 2
When a spring stretch to a distance xm, its PE is kx m . When it is released, it begins to move under
2
the spring force till it reaches the equilibrium position x = 0, where it has maximum velocity. All the PE
is converted into KE. Due to inertia of motion, the body overshoots the x = 0 position. It’s velocity
decreases until it momentarily stops at position x = –xm, where all the KE is converted into PE. The
spring force again pulls the body towards the position x = 0. Thus the body keeps on oscillating. Total
mechanical energy remain constant.
At extreme positions
x   x m , velocity is zero
1
KE  m  02  0
2
27
1 2
PE  kx m
2
At equilibrium position
1
x=0 PE  k 2 02  0
2
1
KE  mv2m vm = maximum value of velocity
2
1
TE  mv 2m
2
To find Maximum speed vm
1 2 1
kx m  mv m2
2 2
k
vm  xm
m
At any intermediate Position x

TE at extreme position = TE of that point
1 2 1 1
kx m  mv 2  kx 2
2 2 2
mv2  k  x 2m  x 2 
k 2
v
m
 xm  x2 
 The variations of KE, PE and total energy with displacement x are shown in figure
28
As both KE & PE depend on x2, their graphs are parabolic. Total total = KE +PE remain constant, so its
graph is a straight line parallel to displacement axis
Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere
A small block of mass m slides down from the top of a frictionless hemisphere of radius r. At a certain
point, the block lose contact with the surface of the sphere. We are going to find the height and angle
at which the block loses its contact with the spherical surface.
Let us assume that at point B, the block loses its contact. Let v be the velocity of block at B.
At point B
mv2
mg cos   ................... (1)
r
TEA = TEB
1
mgr  mv 2  mgh
2
1
mgr  mgh  mv 2
2
29
2mg  r  h   mv2 ...................(2)

Substitute (2) in (1)
2mg  r  h  h
mg cos   cos   ...............(3)
r r
h 2mg  r  h 
mg  
r r
h = 2r – 2h
2r
3h = 2r h ...............(4)
3
2
Block loses contact at the height of r from the ground
3
h 2
From (4) 
r 3
Substitute in (3)
2  2
cos     cos 1  
3  3
1  2
The angle at which block loss contact is cos  
 3
Work done in pulling the chain against gravity
Case-1
Work done in pulling the chain with half of its length hanging over the edge
Consider a chain of mass m and length L held on a frictionless table with half of its length hanging over
the edge
W = change in PE
W = Ui – Uf
M L
= g  Mg  0
2 4
Note that surface of table as a reference level (zero point energy)
30
mgL
Then W 
8
Case-2
th
1
Work done in pulling the chain on table with   of its length hanging over the edge
n
Again reference level is the surface of table
W = Ui – Uf
M L
W g  Mg  0
n 2n
mgL
W
2n 2
 Velocity of chain while leaving the table
th
1
TE of chain when   length hanging from the edge = KE + PE
n
  MgL 
= 0 2 
 2n 
TE of chain when it leaves the table
1  L
= Mv 2    Mg 
2  2
TE = constant
MgL 1  L
 2
 Mv2   Mg 
2n 2  2
 MgL  1  1 2
 2  1  mv
2 n  2
 1 
gL  1  2   v 2
 n 
 1 
v  gL 1  2 
 n 
Power
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
31
If an agent does work W in time t, then its average power is given by
W
Pav 
t
Shorter is the time taken by a person or a machine in performing a particular task, larger is the power
of that person or machine.
 Power is a scalar quantity. It is the dot product of two vectors
 Dimension of power
2 2
 W   ML T 
 P     ML2 T 3 
t  T 
 Units of power
SI unit is watt (W)
1 joule
1 watt =
1 sec ond 1 W  1 Js 1
 Bigger units of power are kilowatt (kW) and horse power (hP)
1 kilowatt = 1000 watt or 1kW = 103 W
1 horse power = 746 watt or 1 hP = 746 W
Instantaneous power
The power of an agent may not be constant during a time interval. The instantaneous power is defined
as the limiting value of the average power as the time interval approaches zero. If W work is done in
a small time interval t , then the instantaneous power is given by
W dW
P  lim 
t  0 t dt
Power as dot product
dw
Instantaneous power, P 
dt
 
dw  F.ds

 ds
P  F.
dt

P  F.v
Power of an agent at any instant is equal to the dot product of its force and velocity vectors at that
instant.
32
Kilowatt hour (KWh)

It is the commercial unit of electrical energy. One kilowatt hour is the electrical energy consumed by an
appliance at 1000 watt in one hour
Relation between KWh and Joule
1 KWh = 1000 W  1h
= 1000 Js–1 × 3600 s
1 KWh = 3.6  106J
Position and velocity of an Automobile w.v. to time
An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting from rest, while the engine supplies constant power P,
its position and velocity changes w.v. to time
P = Fv
P = (ma) v
dv
= m v
dt
P
dt  vdv
m
On integrating
P v2
t  c1 
m 2
At t = 0, v = 0 then c1 = 0. Then
P v2
t
m 2
2Pt
v
m
1/2
ds ds  2Pt 
v  
dt dt  m 
1/ 2
 2Pt 
ds    dt
 m 
1/ 2
 2P  1/ 2
s  t dt
m
33
1/ 2
 2P  t 3/ 2
s   c2
m 3
2
1/ 2
 2P  2 3/ 2
s  t  c2
m 3
At t = 0, S = 0, C2 = 0
1
2
 8P  3
2
S=   t
 9m 
3
2
Then S  t
 When a machine gun fires in bullets per second, each with velocity v, then power machine gun P =
Energy n  KE  1 2
 ; P = n  mv 
Time time 2 
dP P nP
 Force required to hold the machine gun in position F =    n 2m  KE 
dt t 1
 When a pump delivers mass M of water per second over a height h with a velocity v, then power of the
1
pump P = Mgh + Mv 2
2
 Power of heart P = pressure  volume of blood pumped per second.
1 2
 In blowing a whistle, power of lungs P =  mass of air blown / sec   velocity 
2
 Power dissipated by centripetal force is zero.
 When water is flowing through a pipe with a speed V, then its power is proportional to v3
 Power of an engine driving a vehicle of mass m with a speed V on a horizontal road is P = FV ,
P = mgV , where  is the coefficient of friction between the road and the tyres.
 When a vehicle is driven with constant acceleration a, against a constant frictional force F on a level
road, then power of engine at time is P   ma  F  V where V is the velocity of the body at the constant
t.
 In moving over a smooth incline of inclination  , Power P = (mg sin  )V
 In moving over a rough incline of inclination  ,
Power P =  mg sin   F  V =  mg sin   mg cos   V
Where F is the friction.  is the coefficient of friction.

34
Collision
A collistion is said to occur between two bodies, either it they physically collide against each other or
if the path of one is affected by the force exerted by the other. For a collision to take place, actual
physical contact is not necessary.
Collision between particles are of different types.
Elastic collision Inelastic collision
If there is no loss of kinetic energy during a If there is a loss of KE during collision, it is called
collision, it is called an elastic collision inelastic collision
The momentum is conserved The momentum is conserved
Total energy is conserved The total energy is conserved
The KE is conserved The KE is not conserved
Forces involved during the collision are Som e or all the forces involved are non-
conservative conservative
The mechanical energy is not converted into heat, A part of m echanical energy is converted into
light, sound etc heat, light, sound etc
Eg: Collision between sub-atom ic particles, Eg: Collision between two vehicles, collision
collision between gas molecules between ball and floor.
Perfectly inelastic collision

If two bodies stick together after the collision and move as a single body with a common velocity, then
the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic collision. In such collision, loss of KE is maximum. Eg: A
man jumping into a moving trolley. A bullet fired into a wooden block and remaining embedded in it.
Super elastic or explosibe collision
In such a collision, there is an increase in KE. This occurs it there is a release of potential energy on
an impact. Eg : Bursting of a cracker when it hits the floor forcefully.
Head on collision
It is the collision in which the colliding bodies move along the same straight line path before and after
the collision.
Oblique collision or two dimensional collision
After the collision, the colliding bodies do not move along the same straight line path that followed is
called oblique collision
Perfectly inelastic collision in one dimension
Case-1 :
Consider a body of mass m moving with velocity v1 collides head on with another body of mass m2 at
rest. After collision, the two bodies move together with a common velocity v.
35
m2 m1
m1 m2
V1
rest V
Before collision After collision
1 1 mv
As the linear momentum is conserved m1v1  m 2  0   m1  m 2  V ; V  m  m
1 2
1 1
 Loss in KE = Ki – Kf = m1 v12   m1  m 2  v 2
2 2
1 2 1 m12 v12 1 1 m12 v12

m v 
= 2 1 1 2 1  m  m 2  2 = m1v12 
 m1  m 2  2 2  m1  m2 
1  m1  1 m1m 2 v12
K  m1v12  1  
2  m1  m 2  2  m1  m 2 
1 m1m 2 2
K  v1
2 m1  m 2
1 m12 v12
 m1  m 2  2
Kf 2  m1  m 2  m1
  
Ki 1 m1  m 2
m1 v12
2
Kf m1

K i m1  m 2
Case-2
When two colliding bodies are moving in the same direction.
m1 m2 m1 m2
V1 V2 V
By the law of conservation of linear momentum m1 v1  m 2 v 2   m1  m 2  V
36
m1 v1  m 2 v 2
V
m1  m 2
1 1 1
 Loss in KE  K  m1v12  m 2 v 22   m1  m 2  v 2
2 2 2
2
1 2 1 2 1  m1v1  m 2 v 2 
= m1 v1  m 2 v 2   m1  m 2   2
2 2 2  m1  m 2 
2
1 1 1  m1 v1  m 2 v 2 
K  m1 v12  m 2 v 22 
2 2 2  m1  m 2 
1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
m1 v1  m1m2 v12  m2 m1v 22  m22 v22   m1v1  m 2 v 2 
=
2 2 2 2 2
m1  m 2
1 2 2 1 1 1 1
m1 v1  m1m 2  v12  v 22   m 22 v22  m12 v12  m 22 v 22  m1m 2 v 2 v 2
2 2 2 2 2
=
 m1  m 2 
1
m1m 2  v12  v 22  2v1v 2 
K  2
 m1  m 2 
1 m1m 2 2
K   v1  v 2 
2 m1  m 2
Case-2
When the colliding bodies are moving in the opposite direction
m1 m2
v1 v2
v1 > v2
By low of conservation of momentum m1 v1  m 2 v 2   m1  m 2  v
m1v1  m 2 v 2
v
m1  m 2
37
1 m1m 2 2
K  loss in KE   v1  v 2 
2 m1  m 2
Elastic collision in one dimension
Consider two perfectly elastic bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 moving along the same straight
line with velocities u1 and u2 respectively. Let u1 > u2. After some time, two bodies collide head on and
continue moving in the same direction with velocities v1 and v2 respectively. If two bodies will separate
after the collision if v2 > v1
m1 m2
m1 m2 v1 v2
A B A B
During collision After collision
As linear momentum is conserved m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v 2
m1  u1  v1   m 2  v 2  u 2  .............(1)
1 1 1 1
Since KE is also conserved m1u12  m 2 u 22  m1v12  m 2 v 22
2 2 2 2
m1  u12  v12   m 2  v 22  u 22 
m1  u1  v1  u1  v1   m 2  v 2  u 2   v 2  u 2  ..............(2)
2
 u1  v1  v 2  u 2 ; v2  u1  v1  u 2 ......................(3)
1
m1u1  m1v1  m2 u1  m 2 v1  m 2 u 2  m 2 u 2
u1  m1  m 2   v1  m1  m 2   2m 2 u 2
 m1  m2  u1  2m 2u 2   m1  m2  v1
 m1  m 2  2m2 u 2
v1  u1 
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
 m  m2   2m 2 
v1   1  u1    u2
 m1  m 2   m1  m 2 
Interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2 in the above equation, we get

38
 m  m1   2m1 
v2   2  u2    u1
 m1  m 2   m1  m2 
Special cases
1. When two bodies of equal masses collide m1 = m2 = m
v1  u 2 and v 2  u1
After collision, two bodies exchange their velocities if they have same masses.
2. When a body collides against a stationary body of equal mass m1 = m2 = m Let u2 = 0
Then v1  0, v 2  u1
3. When a light body collides against a massive stationary body
m1  m 2 and u 2  0
m 2
v1  u1   u1 v1   u1 ; v 2  0
m2
A light ball on striking a wall rebounds almost with the same speed and the wall remain at rest.
4. When a massive body collides against a light stationary body
m1 >> m2 ; u2 = 0
v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1
The velocity at massive body remains almost unchanged while the light body starts moving with twice
the velocity of the massive body.
Decrease in KE of projectile
1 1 1
AK  m1u12  m1v12  m1  u12  v12 
2 2 2
Fractional decrease in KE
1
K 2 1  1
m u 2  v12 
u 2  v2 v2
  1 2 1  1  12
K 1 u1 u1
m1u12
2
If the target is at rest
 m  m2  2m 2 u 2
v1   1  u1 
 m1  m 2  m1  m 2
Put u2 =0
39
 m  m2 
v1   1  u1
m
 1  m 2 
2 2
K v   m  m2 
 1  1   1  1 
K  u1   m1  m 2 
K m1  m 2  2m1m 2   m1  m 2  2m1m 2 
2 2 2 2
 2
K  m1  m 2 
K 4m1m 2 K 4m1m 2
 2 ;
 2
K  m1  m 2  K  m1  m 2   4m1m 2
K
If m1  m 2 1
K
Then transfer of KE will be maximum
Velocity, momentum and KE of stationary target after head on collision
1) Velocity of target
 m  m1   2m1 
V2   2  u2    u1
 m1  m 2   m1  m 2 
Put u2 =0
2m1u1
v2 
m1  m 2
2u1
v2  m2
m
1  2 ; Let m  n
m1 1
2u1
v2 
1 n
2) Momentum of target
P2  m 2 v 2
m 2  2u1 2m 2 u1 2nm1u1
m2  nm1 ; P2   ; P
1 n 1 n 1 n
2m1u1
P2 
1
1
n
40
3) KE of target
1 2 
1 4u12 1 4u12
KE 2  m 2 v 2 m 2  2
 nm1 2
2 2 1  n  2 1  n 
1
m1u12  KE of projectle  K1
2
4nK1 4nK1
KE 2  2 ;
KE 2  2
1  n  1  n   4n
For V2 to be m axim um
2 u1 n m ust be m inim um
Velocity V2  Target should be very light
1 n
m2
n  0  m 2  m1
m1
For P 2 to be m axim um
2m 1 u1 1
P2 
Mom entum 1 n m ust be Target should be very m assive
1
n m inim um or n m ust be
m axim um
m2
n    m 2  m 1
m1
For K 2 to be m axim um
2
1  n  m ust be
m inim um
1  n  0,  n  1,
4K 1 n m2
K2  2 n 1 m  m Target and projectile should be
KE 1  n   4n m1 2 1
of equal m ass
41
Coefficient of restitution (e)

Coefficient of restitution gives a measure of the degree of elasticity of a collision. It is defined at the
ratio of magnitude of relative velocity of separation after collision to the magnitude of relative velocity of
approach before collision
v1  v 2
It is given by e 
u1  u 2
The coefficient of restitution can be used to distinguish between the different types of collisions as
follows
* For a perfectly elastic collision e=1, ie relative velocity of separation is equal to the relative velocity of
approach
* For on inelastic collision, 0  e  1 . The relative velocity of separation is less than relative velocity of
approach
* For a perfectly inelastic collision, e =0. Relative velocity of separation is zero
* For super elastic collision e  1 KE increases
Collision KE Coefficient of restitution m ain dom ain
Elastic Conserved e=1 between atom ic particle
Inelastic Not conserved 0<e<1 between ordinary objects
Perfectly inelastic Maxim um loss of KE e=0 During shooting
Super elastic KE lncreases e>1 In explosions
Inelastic head on collision
Re lative velocity of separates v 2  v1

e 
Re lative velocity of approach u1  u 2
42
v 2  v1  e  u1  u 2 
v 2  v1  e  u1  u 2   v1
By the law of conservation of momentum
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v 2
Substitute the value of V2
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2  eu1  eu 2  v1 
u1  m1  m 2 e   u 2  m 2  m 2e   v1  m1  m 2 
v1 
 m1  m 2e  u 
m 2 1  e 
u2
1
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
Interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2 in the above equation, we get v2
v2 
 m 2  m1e  u 
m1 1  e 
u1
2
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
Inelastic collision when one particle is stationary
v 2  v1
e
u1
eu1  v 2  v1 ........(1)
v 2  eu1  v1
By conservation of mumentum
m1u1  m1v1  m 2 v 2 ......(2)
m1u1  m1 v1  m 2 eu1  m 2 v1
 m1  m 2e  u 1
u1  m1  m 2e   v1  m1  m 2  ; v1  m1  m 2
From (1) v1  v 2  eu1......(3)
43
m1u1  m1 v2  m1eu,  m 2 v 2 ; u1m1 1  e   v 2  m1  m 2 
m1 1  e  u1
v2 
m1  m 2
v1  m1  m 2 e 
 ; if m1  m 2
v2 m1 1  e 
v1 1  e

v2 1  e
Coefficient of restitution in various situations

(1) Colliding bodies moving in same direction before and after the collision
v 2  v1
e
u1  u 2
(2) Colliding bodies moving in opposite direction before and after the collision
v1  v2
e
u1  u 2
(3) Oblique impact on a fixed plane
For a body of mass m moving with velocity u making an angle  with normal to a fixed horizontal floor..
After collision, the body is deflected with a velocity V, making an angle  with normal. Impact take
44
velocity of separation
place along normal e 
velocity of approach
v cos 
e
u cos 
(4) Rebounding of a ball after collision with ground

If a ball is dropped from a height ho on a horizontal floor, then it strikes with a speed vo
v 2  u 2  2gh
v 2o  02  2  g  h o
v o  2gh o
If it rebound from the floor with a speed v, to a height h1 , v 2  u 2  2gh
02  v12  2  g  h1
v1  2gh1
R.V of separation v1 h1
e= = 
R.V of approach v0 ho
1
h  2
e 1 
 ho 
v1
e v1  ev o  e 2gh o
vo
v12
First height of rebound h1   e2 h o
2g
h1  e 2 h o
45
* For the second rebound, v1 is the velocity of approach v2 is the velocity of separation
v2
e
v1 ; v 2  ev1
But v1  ev o
v 2  e2 vo
Similarly for nth rebound
vn  en vo
v 22 e 4 v 2o
Height of second rebound h 2  
2g 2g
v 2o
But  ho
2g
h 2  e4h o
Similary for nth rebound, the height
h o  e 2n h o
* Distance travelled by the ball before it stops bounding
M  h o  2h1  2h 2  .....
 h o  2e 2 h o  2e4 h o  2e 6 h o ,......
 h o 1  2e2  2e 4  2e 6  ........

 h o 1  2e 2 1  e 2  e 4  ...... 
46
1
1  e 2  e 4  ..... 
1  e2

 h o  1  2e 2 
1 
 ;  ho
1  e 2  2e 2 
 1  e2  1  e2
M  ho
1  e  2
1  e  2
* Total time taken by the ball to stop bounding
T  t o  2t1  2t 2  2t 3  ......
2h o 2h1 2h 2
T 2 2  ....
g g g
2h o 2  e2h o 2e 4 h o
T 2 2  .....
g g g
2h o
T
g
1  2e  2e 2  ......
2h o
T
g

1  2e 1  e  e 2  e3  .... 
2h o  1 
T 1  2e  
g  1 e 
2h o 1  e  2e 
T
g 1 e
2h o 1 e 
T  
g  1 e 
Collision between bullet and vertically suspended block

A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with velocity v in block of mass M suspended by vertical thread.
Let the combined system raised up to height h and the string makes an angle  witht he vertical
Velocity of the system
Let V be the velocity of the system
47
By momentum conservation mv  0   m  M  V
mv
V .....(1)
mM
Velocity of the bullet
1
TE A   M  m  V2
2
TFB   M  m  gh
1
 M  m  V 2   M  m  gh
2
V  2gh......(2)
substitute (2) in (1)
mv
2gh 
Mm
V  2gh
 m  M
m
Loss in KE
1 1
Ak  mv 2   M  m  V 2
2 2
1 1 m2 v 2
 mv 2   M  m   2
2 2 m  M
48
1 1 m2v2
 mv 2 
2 2 mM
1  m 
K  mv 2  1  
2  mM
1 M
KE  mv 2 
2 mM
Angle of string from the vertical
V  2gh
 m  M
m
2
V 2
 2gh 
 m  M
m2
2
V2  m 
h  
2g  m  M 
2
Lh h v2  m 
cos    1  1  
L L 2gL  m  M 
2
 1v2  m  
  cos 1 
 2gL  m  M  
 
Elastic collision in two dimension
Suppose a particle of mass m moving along X axis with velocity u1 collides wit another particle of mass
m2 at rest. After the collision, let the two particles move with velocities v1 and v2, making angles 1 and 2
with X axis
Applying the law of conservation of momentum along X axis
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1 cos 1  m 2 v 2 cos 2
49
A B
m1 u1 u2
m2
u1 > u2
* Applying the law of conservation of moment along r axis
m1  0  m 2  0  m1v1 sin 1  m 2   v 2 sin 2
m1 v1 sin 1  m 2 v 2 sin 2
* Conservation of kinetic energy yields
1 1 1 1
m1u12  m 2 u 22  m1v12  m 2 v 22
2 2 2 2
If the particle B is initially at rest
* Conservation of momentum along X axis
m1u1  m1v1 cos 1  m 2 v 2 cos 2

* Conservation of momentum along Y axis
o  o  m1v1 sin 1  m 2 v2 sin 2

* Conservation of KE
1 1 1
m1u12  m1 v12  m 2 v22
2 2 2
50
Impact parameter
It is the perpendicualr distance between initial velocity vectors of the two particles that take part in
collision. It is denoted by b
51

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE LT-23 PHYSICS (ONLINE)

Then work done is W  F  s  Fcos  s

 W  Fs cos  = a positive value

 W  Fs cos  = a negative value

Relation between joule and erg

= 105 dyne  102 cm

1 Joule  107 erg

Gravitational units of work

Work done by a variable force

W  Fx  Area of rectangle

Some other units of work or energy

Sl.No. Unit Symbol Value in SI

3 calorie cal 4.186 J

4 kilowatt hour kWh 3.6 106 J

Various groups of kinetic energy

4. Graph between KE and p when mass is constant

Work Energy Theorem

According to Newton’s second law of motion

Stopping a vehicle by Retarding force

 If vehicle is stopped by friction, then

 If vehicle possess same velocities

 If vehicle possess same momentum

 If vehicle possess same kinetic energy

Gravitational potential energy

If the surface of earth h = 0, W  mg  0  0

 Gravitational potential energy at the surface of earth is zero

Mathematically W AB (along path 1) = W AB (along path 2)

W AB (along path 1) = –W BA(along path 2)

W  WAC  WCD  WDE  WEB

Wnet  WAB  WBA  mgs  mgs  2mgs

On differentiating the above equal

Stable Unstable Neutral

When a particle is slightly

Potential energy is minimum Potential energy is maximum Potential energy is constant

Potential energy of a spring

Principle of conservation of mechanical energy

Conservation of mechanical energy in projectile motion

At the highest point, velocity of projectile is along horizontal v  u cos 

v B  2g  cos 2  cos 1 

 If a pendulum of length  is held horizontal as shown in figure and released

Motion of a particle in a vertical circle

At any intermediate Position x

2mg  r  h   mv2 ...................(2)

If an agent does work W in time t, then its average power is given by

Kilowatt hour (KWh)

 In moving over a smooth incline of inclination  , Power P = (mg sin  )V

 In moving over a rough incline of inclination  ,

Power P =  mg sin   F  V =  mg sin   mg cos   V

Where F is the friction.  is the coefficient of friction.

Elastic collision Inelastic collision

The momentum is conserved The momentum is conserved

Total energy is conserved The total energy is conserved

The KE is conserved The KE is not conserved

Perfectly inelastic collision

1 2 1 m12 v12 1 1 m12 v12

By the law of conservation of linear momentum m1 v1  m 2 v 2   m1  m 2  V

By low of conservation of momentum m1 v1  m 2 v 2   m1  m 2  v

As linear momentum is conserved m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m2 v 2

Interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2 in the above equation, we get

3. When a light body collides against a massive stationary body