111-115

AERODYNAMICS: SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS 91
direction. The e coordinate direction is the direction of increasing e, holding rand

<P constant; eg is the unit vector in the e direction. The <P coordinate direction is the
direction of increasing <P, holding rand e constant; e<t:> is the unit vector in the <P
direction. The unit vectors en eg, and e<t:> are mutually perpendicular. if A is a given
vector in spherical space, then
A = Are, + Agel! + A<t:>e<t:>
where A" AI!, and A<t:> are the scalar components of A along the r, e, and <P directions,
respectively, as shown in Figure 2.5b. The transformation between cartesian and
spherical coordinates is obtained from inspection of Figure 2.5a, namely,
x = r sin e cos <P
y = r sin esin <P [2.7]
z = r cos e
or inversely,
r = J x 2 + y2 + Z2
Z Z
e= arccos - = arccos r::;C=:=::;C=:=::;:: [2.8]
r Jx 2 +y2+ Z2
x
<P = arccos r::;C=:=::;::
Jx2 + y2
2.2.3 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS
A scalar quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time t is called a scalar
field. For example, pressure, density, and temperature are scalar quantities, and
P = Pl(X, y, z, t) = P2(r, e, z, t) = P3(r, e, <P, t)

P = PI (x, y, z, t) = P2(r, e, z, t) = P3(r, e, <P, t)
T = T1 (x, y, z, t) = T2 (r, e, z, t) = "D(r, e, <P, t)
are scalar fields for pressure, density, and temperature, respectively. Similarly, a
vector quantity given as a function of coordinate space and time is called a vector
field. For example, velocity is a vector quantity, and
V = Vxi + Vyj + Vzk

where Vt = Vx(x, y, z, t)
Vv = Vy(x, y, z, t)
Vz = Vz(x, y, z, t)
is the vector field for V in cartesian space. Analogous expressions can be written
for vector fields in cylindrical and spherical space. In many theoretical aerodynamic
problems, the above scalar and vector fields are the unknowns to be obtained in a
solution for a flow with prescribed initial and boundary conditions.
www.ASEC.ir
92 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
2.2.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS
The scalar and vector products defined by Equations (2.3) and (2.4), respectively, can
be written in terms of the components of each vector as follows.
Cartesian Coordinates Let
A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

and B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk
Then A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz [2.9]
l y
By
;z]
Bz
= i(AyBz - AzBy) + j(AzBx - AxBz) + k(AxBy - AyBx)
[2.10]
Cylindrical Coordinates Let
A = Arer + Aeee + Aze,

and B = Bre r + Bee e + Bzez
Then A· B = ArBr + AeBe + AzB z [2.11 ]
er ee ez
and A xB = Ar Ae Az [2.12]
Br Be Bz
Spherical Coordinates Let

A = Arer + Aeee + Aq,eq,
and B = Brer + Bee e + Bq,eq,
Then A· B = ArBr + AeBe + Aq,Bq, [2.13]
ee eq,
and Ax B = [ Ae,r A e Aq, [2.14]
Br Be Bq,
2.2.5 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD
We now begin a review of some elements of vector calculus. Consider a scalar field
P = Pl(X, y, z) = P2(r, e, z) = P3(r, e, <1»
The gradient of p, V' p, at a given point in space is defined as a vector such that:
1. Its magnitude is the maximum rate of change of P per unit length of the coordinate
space at the given point.
2. Its direction is that of the maximum rate of change of P at the given point.
www.ASEC.ir
For example, consider a two-dimensional pressure field in cartesian space as sketched

in Figure 2.6. The solid curves are lines of constant pressure; i.e., they connect points
in the pressure field which have the same value of p. Such lines are called isolines.
Consider an arbitrary point (x, y) in Figure 2.6. If we move away from this point in
an arbitrary direction, p will, in general, change because we are moving to another
location in space. Moreover, there will be some direction from this point along which
p changes the most over a unit length in that direction. This defines the direction of
the gradient of p and is identified in Figure 2.6. The magnitude of V p is the rate of
change of p per unit length in that direction. Both the magnitude and direction of
V p will change from one point to another in the coordinate space. A line drawn in
this space along which V p is tangent at every point is defined as a gradient line, as
sketched in Figure 2.6. The gradient line and isoline through any given point in the
coordinate space are perpendicular.
Consider V p at a given point (x, y) as shown in Figure 2.7. Choose some
arbitrary direction s away from the point, as also shown in Figure 2.7. Let n be a unit
vector in the s direction. The rate of change of p per unit length in the s direction is
dp
- = Vp·n [2.15]
ds
P3 = const} Isolines of
P 2 = const pressure
P3 >P2 >Pl
PI = const
L-----------_.x
Figure 2.6 Illustration af the gradient of a scalar field.
(x,Y) <...~n --.
L------------_x
Figure 2.7 Sketch for the
directional derivative.
www.ASEC.ir ------------_._--_...
94 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
In Equation (2.15), dp / ds is called the directional derivative in the s direction. Note

from Equation (2.15) that the rate of change of p in any arbitrary direction is simply
the component of V p in that direction.
Expressions for V p in the different coordinate systems are given below:
Cartesian: p=p(x,y,z)
ap. ap. ap
Vp= -I+-J+-k [2.16]
ax ay az
Cylindrical: p = per, e, z)
ap 1 ap ap
Vp = -e
ar r
+ --e(j +-e
r ae az Z
[2.17]
Spherical: p = per, e, <1»
ap 1 ap 1 ap
Vp = -er + --e(j + ---elf> [2.18]
ar rae r sine a<l>
2.2.6 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD
Consider a vector field

v= VCx, y, z) = VCr, e, z) = VCr, e, <1»
In the above, V can represent any vector quantity. However, for practical purposes,
and to aid in physical interpretation, consider V to be the flow velocity. Also, visualize
a small fluid element of fixed mass moving along a streamline with velocity V. As the
fluid element moves through space, its volume will, in general, change. In Section 2.3,
we prove that the time rate of change of the volume of a moving fluid element of fixed
mass, per unit volume of that element, is equal to the divergence of V, denoted by
V • V. The divergence of a vector is a scalar quantity; it is one of two ways that the
derivative of a vector field can be defined. In different coordinate systems, we have
Cartesian:
avx avy avz

V·V=-+-+- [2.19]
ax ay az
Cylindrical:
www.ASEC.ir
1 a laVe + -avz
V' . V = -- (r V ) + - - [2.20]
r ar r r ae az
Spherical:
V' . V = I a ( 2v:) I a (\I, . e) I aV'"

r2 ar r r + rsine ae e sm + rsine a<l:> [2.21 ]
2.2.7 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD
Consider a vector field
V = Vex, y, z) = VCr, e, z) = VCr, e, <1:»

Although V can be any vector quantity, again consider V to be the flow velocity. Once
again visualize a fluid element moving along a streamline. It is possible for this fluid
element to be rotating with an angular velocity w as it translates along the streamline.
In Section 2.9, we prove that w is equal to one-half of the curl of V, where the curl of
V is denoted by V' x V. The curl of V is a vector quantity; it is the alternate way that
the derivative of a vector field can be defined, the first being V' . V (see Section 2.2.6,
Divergence of a Vector Field). In different coordinate systems, we have
Cartesian:
k
V'xv=
o _ . (0-
-I
V, - 0-
V, ) +J. (0-
Vx - 0-
V, ) +k ( -
0Vy - 0-
Vx )
oz oy oz oz ox ox oy
V,
[2.22]
Cylindrical:
1
V'xV=-
a a a [2.23]
r ar ae az
Vr rYe Vz
Spherical:
www.ASEC.ir

111-115

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

111-115

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

111-115

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AERODYNAMICS: SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS 91

direction. The e coordinate direction is the direction of increasing e, holding rand

2.2.3 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS

P = Pl(X, y, z, t) = P2(r, e, z, t) = P3(r, e, <P, t)

V = Vxi + Vyj + Vzk

2.2.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR PRODUCTS

Cartesian Coordinates Let

A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

Cylindrical Coordinates Let

A = Arer + Aeee + Aze,

Spherical Coordinates Let

2.2.5 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD

For example, consider a two-dimensional pressure field in cartesian space as sketched

(x,Y) <...~n --.

In Equation (2.15), dp / ds is called the directional derivative in the s direction. Note

Spherical: p = per, e, <1»

2.2.6 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD

Consider a vector field

avx avy avz

V' . V = I a ( 2v:) I a (\I, . e) I aV'"

2.2.7 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD

Consider a vector field

V = Vex, y, z) = VCr, e, z) = VCr, e, <1:»

You might also like