AERODYNAMICS: SOME INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS 81

In fluid statics, the governing equation is the hydrostatic equation:

dp = -gpdy [1.52]
For a constant density medium, this integrates to
P + pgh = constant [1.54]

or PI + pgh = P2 + pgh 2
Such equations govern, among other things, the operation of a manometer, and also lead to Archimedes' principle
that the buoyancy force on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

PROBLEMS
1. For most gases at standard or near standard conditions, the relationship among
pressure, density, and temperature is given by the perfect gas equation of state:
P = pRT, where R is the specific gas constant. For air at near standard con-
ditions, R = 287 J/ (kg . K) in the International System of Units and R =
1716 ft· Ib/(slug . OR) in the English Engineering System of Units. (More de-
tails on the perfect gas equation of state are given in Chapter 7.) Using the above
information, consider the following two cases:
(a) At a given point on the wing of a Boeing 727, the pressure and temperature
of the air are 1.9 x 104 N/m 2 and 203 K, respectively. Calculate the density at
this point.
(b) At a point in the test section of a supersonic wind tunnel, the pressure and
density of the air are 1058 Ib/ft 2 and 1.23 x 10-3 slug/ft3 , respectively. Calculate
the temperature at this point.
2. Starting with Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11), derive in detail Equations (1.15),
(1.16), and (1.17).
3. Consider an infinitely thin flat plate of chord C at an angle of attack a in a
supersonic flow. The pressures on the upper and lower surfaces are different but
constant over each surface; i.e., Pu(s) = CI and PI(S) = C2, where Cl and C2 are
constants and C2 > Ct. Ignoring the shear stress, calculate the location of the
center of pressure.
4. Consider an infinitely thin flat plate with aIm chord at an angle of attack of
10° in a supersonic flow. The pressure and shear stress distributions on the
upper and lower surfaces are given by Pu = 4 X 104 (x - I? + 5.4 x 104 ,
PI = 2 x I04 (x - 1)2 + 1.73 x lOs, f u = 288x- O.2 , and fl = 73Ix- 02 ,
respectively, where x is the distance from the leading edge in meters and P and
f are in newtons per square meter. Calculate the normal and axial forces, the
lift and drag, moments about the leading edge, and moments about the quarter
chord, all per unit span. Also, calculate the location of the center of pressure.

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82 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

5. Consider an airfoil at 12° angle of attack. The normal and axial force coefficients
are 1.2 and 0.03, respectively. Calculate the lift and drag coefficients.
6. Consider an NACA 2412 airfoil (the meaning of the number designations for
standard NACA airfoil shapes is discussed in Chapter 4). The following is a
tabulation of the lift, drag, and moment coefficients about the quarter chord for
this airfoil, as a function of angle of attack.

a (degrees) Cf Cd Cm ,cj4

-2.0 0.05 0.006 -0.042

0 0.25 0.006 -0.040
2.0 0.44 0.006 -0.038
4.0 0.64 0.007 -0.036
6.0 0.85 0.0075 -0.036
8.0 1.08 0.0092 -0.036
10.0 1.26 0.0115 -0.034
12.0 1.43 0.0150 -0.030
14.0 1.56 0.0186 -0.025

From this table, plot on graph paper the variation of x cp / c as a function of a.

7. The drag on the hull of a ship depends in part on the height of the water waves
produced by the hull. The potential energy associated with these waves therefore
depends on the acceleration of gravity g. Hence, we can state that the wave drag
on the hull is D = j(poo, VOO , C, g) where C is a length scale associated with
the hull, say, the maximum width of the hull. Define the drag coefficient as
CD == D / qooc 2 • Also, define a similarity parameter called the Froude number,
Fr = V / y'gC. Using Buckingham's pi theorem, prove that CD = j(Fr).
8. The shock waves on a vehicle in supersonic flight cause a component of drag
called supersonic wave drag D w . Define the wave-drag coefficient as CD. w =
D w / qoo S, where S is a suitable reference area for the body. In supersonic flight,
the flow is governed in part by its thermodynamic properties, given by the specific
heats at constant pressure c p and at constant volume c v • Define the ratio c p / C v ==
y. Using Buckingham's pi theorem, show that C D . w = j(Moo , y). Neglect the
influence of friction.
9. Consider two different flows over geometrically similar airfoil shapes, one airfoil
being twice the size of the other. The flow over the smaller airfoil has freestream
properties given by Too = 200 K, Poo = 1.23 kg/m3 , and V00 = 100 mls. The
flow over the larger airfoil is described by Too = 800 K, Poo = 1.739 kg/m 3 , and
Voo = 200 mls. Assume that both II and a are proportional to T I / 2 • Are the two
flows dynamically similar?
10. Consider a Learjet flying at a velocity of250 mls at an altitude of 10 km, where the
density and temperature are 0.414 kg/m 3 and 223 K, respectively. Consider also a
one-fifth scale model of the Lear jet being tested in a wind tunnel in the laboratory.
The pressure in the test section of the wind tunnel is 1 atm = 1.01 x 105 N/m2 .
Calculate the necessary velocity, temperature, and density of the airflow in the

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 AERODYNAMICS: SOME INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS 83

wind-tunnel test section such that the lift and drag coefficients are the same for the
wind-tunnel model and the actual airplane in flight. Note: The relation among
pressure, density, and temperature is given by the equation of state described in
Problem 1.1.
11. A V-tube mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure at a point on
the wing of a wind-tunnel model. One side of the manometer is connected to
the model, and the other side is open to the atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure
and the density of liquid mercury are 1.0 1 x 105 N/m 2 and 1.36 x 104 kg/m 3,
respectively. When the displacement of the two columns of mercury is 20 cm,
with the high column on the model side, what is the pressure on the wing?
12. The German Zeppelins of World War I were dirigibles with the following typ-
ical characteristics: volume = 15,000 m3 and maximum diameter = 14.0 m.
Consider a Zeppelin flying at a velocity of 30 m/s at a standard altitude of 1000
m (look up the corresponding density in any standard altitude table). The Zep-
pelin is at a small angle of attack such that its lift coefficient is 0.05 (based on
the maximum cross-sectional area). The Zeppelin is flying in straight-and-level
flight with no acceleration. Calculate the total weight of the Zeppelin.
13. Consider a circular cylinder in a hypersonic flow, with its axis perpendicular to
the flow. Let ¢ be the angle measured between radii drawn to the leading edge
(the stagnation point) and to any arbitrary point on the cylinder. The pressure
coefficient distribution along the cylindrical surface is given by C p = 2 cos 2 ¢
for a :s ¢ :s n /2 and 3n /2 :s ¢ :s 2n and C p = a for n /2 :s ¢ :s 3n/2.
Calculate the drag coefficient for the cylinder, based on projected frontal area of
the cylinder.
14. Derive Archimedes' principle using a body of general shape.
15. Consider a light, single-engine, propeller-driven airplane similar to a Cessna
Skylane. The airplane weight is 2950 Ib and the wing reference area is 174 ft2.
The drag coefficient of the airplane CD is a function of the lift coefficient C L
for reasons that are given in Chapter 5; this function for the given airplane is
CD = 0.025 + 0.054ci.
(a) For steady, level flight at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric density is
0.002377 slug/ft3, plot on a graph the variation of C L , CD, and the lift-to-drag
ratio L/ D with flight velocity ranging between 70 ftls and 250 ftls.
(h) Make some observations about the variation of these quantities with velocity.

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 c h a p ... e r

2
AERODYNAMICS: SOME FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS

There is so great a difference between a fluid and a collection of solid particles that the laws of pressure' and
of equilibrium of fluids are very different from the laws of the pressure and equilibrium of solids.

Jean Le Rond d' Alembert, 1768

The principle is most important, not the detail.

Theodore von Karman, 1954

2.1 INTRODUCTION AND ROAD MAP

To be a good craftsperson, one must have good tools and know how to use them
effectively. Similarly, a good aerodynamicist must have good aerodynamic tools and
must know how to use them for a variety of applications. The purpose of this chapter
is "tool-building"; we develop some of the concepts and equations that are vital to the
study of aerodynamic flows. However, please be cautioned: A craftsperson usually
derives his or her pleasure from the works of art created with the use of the tools; the
actual building of the tools themselves is sometimes considered a mundane chore.
You may derive a similar feeling here. As we proceed to build our aerodynamic tools,
you may wonder from time to time why such tools are necessary and what possible
value they may have in the solution of practical problems. Rest assured, however,
that every aerodynamic tool we develop in this and subsequent chapters is important
for the analysis and understanding of practical problems to be discussed later. So, as

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