AERODYNAMICS: SOME INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS 11

iment may be, all such efforts are usually aimed at one or more of the following
practical objectives:
I. The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat transfer to, bodies moving
through a fluid (usually air). For example, we are concerned with the generation
of lift, drag, and moments on airfoils, wings, fuselages, engine nacelles, and
most importantly, whole airplane configurations. We want to estimate the wind
force on buildings, ships, and other surface vehicles. We are concerned with
the hydrodynamic forces on surface ships, submarines, and torpedoes. We need
to be able to calculate the aerodynamic heating of flight vehicles ranging from
the supersonic transport to a planetary probe entering the atmosphere of Jupiter.
These are but a few examples.
2. Determination of flows moving internally through ducts. We wish to calculate
and measure the flow properties inside rocket and air-breathing jet engines and
to calculate the engine thrust. We need to know the flow conditions in the test
section of a wind tunnel. We must know how much fluid can flow through pipes
under various conditions. A recent, very interesting application of aerodynamics
is high-energy chemical and gas-dynamic lasers (see Reference 1), which are
nothing more than specialized wind tunnels that can produce extremely powerful
laser beams. Figure 1.5 is a photograph of an early gas-dynamic laser designed
in the late 1960s.

Figure 1.5 A CO 2 -N 2 gas-dynamic loser, circa 1969. (Courtesy of the Aveo-Everett

Research Laboratory.)

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12 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

The applications in item 1 come under the heading of external aerodynamics since
they deal with external flows over a body. In contrast, the applications in item 2
involve internal aerodynamics because they deal with flows internally within ducts.
In external aerodynamics, in addition to forces, moments, and aerodynamic heating
associated with a body, we are frequently interested in the details of the flow field
away from the body. For example, the communication blackout experienced by the
space shuttle during a portion of its reentry trajectory is due to a concentration of free
electrons in the hot shock layer around the body. We need to calculate the variation of
electron density throughout such flow fields. Another example is the propagation of
shock waves in a supersonic flow; for instance, does the shock wave from the wing of
a supersonic airplane impinge upon and interfere with the tail surfaces? Yet another
example is the flow associated with the strong vortices trailing downstream from the
wing tips of large subsonic airplanes such as the Boeing 747. What are the properties
of these vortices, and how do they affect smaller aircraft which happen to fly through
them?
The above is just a sample of the myriad applications of aerodynamics. One
purpose of this book is to provide the reader with the technical background necessary
to fully understand the nature of such practical aerodynamic applications.

1.3 ROAD MAP FOR THIS CHAPTER

When learning a new subject, it is important for you to know where you are, where
you are going, and how you can get there. Therefore, at the beginning of each chapter
in this book, a road map will be given to help guide you through the material of
that chapter and to help you obtain a perspective as to how the material fits within
the general framework of aerodynamics. For example, a road map for Chapter 1 is
given in Figure 1.6. You will want to frequently refer back to these road maps as you
progress through the individual chapters. When you reach the end of each chapter,
look back over the road map to see where you started, where you are now, and what
you learned in between.

1.4 SOME FUNDAMENTAL AERODYNAMIC VARIABLES

A prerequisite to understanding physical science and engineering is simply learn-

ing the vocabulary used to describe concepts and phenomena. Aerodynamics is no
exception. Throughout this book, and throughout your working career, you will be
adding to your technical vocabulary list. Let us start by defining four of the most
frequently used words in aerodynamics: "pressure," "density," "temperature," and
"flow velocity."l
Consider a surface immersed in a fluid. The surface can be a real, solid surface
such as the wall of a duct or the surface of a body; it can also be a free surface which
we simply imagine drawn somewhere in the middle of a fluid. Also, keep in mind that

I 1 A basic intraduction to these quantities is given on pages 54-59 of Reference 2.

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 AERODYNAMICS: SOME INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS 13

I Some introductory aerodynamic concepts.

I
I
Definition of basic aerodynamic
quantities; pressure, density, Important to begin an
temperature, flow velocity, aerodynamic vocabulary
streamlines

I
The source of aerodynamic forces
and moments, and how to obtain A starting poi nt for
them by integrating surface practical appli cations
properties

I
Definition of lift, drag, and Some of the most frequently
moment coefficients used terms in aerodynamics

I I Where aerody namic forces

Center of pressure
I act on a body

I A powerful in strument to
Dimensional analysis and I define basic governing
flow similarity parameters; the crux of
I wind-tunnel te sting
II What happens in a fluid
Fluid statics
I when there is no flow

I
Types of fluid flows:
continuum, inviscid/viscous, How the scien ce of
incompressible/compressible, aerodynamics is
subsonic, transonic, subdivided an d
supersonic, hypersonic categorized

Figure 1.6 Road map for Chapter 1.

the molecules of the fluid are constantly in motion. Pressure is the normal force per
unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas
molecules impacting on (or crossing) that surface. It is important to note that even
though pressure is defined as force "per unit area," you do not need a surface that is
exactly I ft2 or 1 m2 to talk about pressure. In fact, pressure is usually defined at a
point in the fluid or a point on a solid surface and can vary from one point to another.
To see this more clearly, consider a point B in a volume of fluid. Let
d A = elemental area at B
dF = force on one side of d A due to pressure
Then, the pressure at point B in the fluid is defined as

p = lim (~:) dA ~ 0

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14 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

The pressure p is the limiting form of the force per unit area, where the area of interest
has shrunk to nearly zero at the point B. 2 Clearly, you can see that pressure is a point
property and can have a different value from one point to another in the fluid.
Another important aerodynamic variable is density, defined as the mass per unit
volume. Analogous to our discussion on pressure, the definition of density does not
require an actual volume of 1 ft3 or 1 m3 . Rather, it is a point property that can vary
from point to point in the fluid. Again, consider a point B in the fluid. Let
dv = elemental volume around B
dm = mass of fluid inside dv
Then, the density at point B is
dm
p = lim - dv ---+ 0
dv
Therefore, the density p is the limiting form of the mass per unit volume, where the
volume of interest has shrunk to nearly zero around point B. (Note that dv cannot
achieve the value of zero for the reason discussed in the footnote concerning d A in
the definition of pressure.)
Temperature takes on an important role in high-speed aerodynamics (introduced
in Chapter 7). The temperature T of a gas is directly proportional to the average
kinetic energy of the molecules of the fluid. In fact, if KE is the mean molecular
kinetic energy, then temperature is given by KE = ~kT, where k is the Boltzmann
constant. Hence, we can qualitatively visualize a high-temperature gas as one in
which the molecules and atoms are randomly rattling about at high speeds, whereas
in a low-temperature gas, the random motion of the molecules is relatively slow.
Temperature is also a point property, which can vary from point to point in the gas.
The principal focus of aerodynamics is fluids in motion. Hence, flow velocity
is an extremely important consideration. The concept of the velocity of a fluid is
slightly more subtle than that of a solid body in motion. Consider a solid object in
translational motion, say, moving at 30 mls. Then all parts of the solid are simul-
taneously translating at the same 30 mls velocity. In contrast, a fluid is a "squishy"
substance, and for a fluid in motion, one part of the fluid may be traveling at a different
velocity from another part. Hence, we have to adopt a certain perspective, as follows.
Consider the flow of air over an airfoil, as shown in Figure 1.7. Lock your eyes on a
specific, infinitesimally small element of mass in the gas, called afiuid element, and
watch this element move with time. Both the speed and direction of this fluid element
can vary as it moves from point to point in the gas. Now fix your eyes on a specific
fixed point in space, say, point B in Figure 1.7. Flow velocity can now be defined as
follows: The velocity of a flowing gas at any fixed point B in space is the velocity
of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it sweeps through B. The flow velocity
V has both magnitude and direction; hence, it is a vector quantity. This is in contrast
to p, p, and T, which are scalar variables. The scalar magnitude of V is frequently

2 Strictly speaking, dA can never achieve the limit of zero, because there would be no molecules at point
B in that case. The above limit should be interpreted as dA approaching a very small value, near zero in
terms of our macroscopic thinking, but sufficiently larger than the average spacing between molecules on a
microscopic basis.

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 AERODYNAMICS: SOME INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS 15

B
Fluid element

Figure 1.7 Illustration of flow velocity and streamlines.

used and is denoted by V. Again, we emphasize that velocity is a point property and
can vary from point to point in the flow.
Referring again to Figure 1.7, a moving fluid element traces out a fixed path in
space. As long as the flow is steady, i.e., as long as it does not fluctuate with time, this
path is called a streamline of the flow. Drawing the streamlines of the flow field is an
important way of visualizing the motion of the gas; we will frequently be sketching
the streamlines of the flow about various objects. A more rigorous discussion of
streamlines is given in Chapter 2.

1.5 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS

At first glance, the generation of the aerodynamic force on a giant Boeing 747 may
seem complex, especially in light of the complicated three-dimensional flow field over
the wings, fuselage, engine nacelles, tail, etc. Similarly, the aerodynamic resistance
on an automobile traveling at 55 mi/h on the highway involves a complex interaction
of the body, the air, and the ground. However, in these and all other cases, the
aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due to only two basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
No matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and moments
on the body are due entirely to the above two basic sources. The only mechanisms
nature has for communicating a force to a body moving through a fluid are pressure
and shear stress distributions on the body surface. Both pressure p and shear stress
r have dimensions of force per unit area (pounds per square foot or newtons per
square meter). As sketched in Figure 1.8, p acts normal to the surface, and r acts
tangential to the surface. Shear stress is due to the "tugging action" on the surface,
which is caused by friction between the body and the air (and is studied in great detail
in Chapters 15 to 20).
The net effect of the p and r distributions integrated over the complete body
surface is a resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body, as sketched
in Figure 1.9. In turn, the resultant R can be split into components, two sets of which
are shown in Figure 1.10. In Figure 1.10, V:x> is the relative wind, defined as the

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