Chemistry Notes

Chapter 2

Section 3

Accuracy VS. Precision

-​ Accuracy - how close a measurement is to an accepted standard or the right

answer
-​ Precision - how close the measurements are to one another (reproducible
answer)
Percent Error

-​ Percent error= |error|/accepted value x 100

Significant Digits

-​ The valid digits that are in a measurement

-​ The last digit given in a measurement is the uncertain digit
-​ Significant figures: include all known digits plus one estimated digit

Rules to Determine Significant Figures

1.​ Nonzero numbers are alway significant

2.​ All final zeros after the decimal point are significant
3.​ Zeros between two other significant digits are always significant
4.​ Zeros used solely as placeholders are not significant
Significant Figures Example Problems

-​ 0.0040230 g= 5
-​ 405,000 kg= 3
-​ 0.0009 cm= 1
-​ 10,000 m= 1
-​ 270 mL= 2
-​ 30.00 m= 4
Significant Figures Rounding Rules Practice Problems

-​ , 1 kg→84,790 kg
84 79

-​ 38.5432 g→38.54 g

Significant Figures Rounding Rules for Addition and Subtraction

-​ When you add or subtract measurements, your answer must have the same
number of decimal places as the value with the fewest number of decimal
places in the problem
Significant Figures Rounding Rules for Multiplying and Dividing

-​ When you multiply or divide numbers, your answer must have the same
number of significant figures as the measurement with the fewest significant
figures
 Chemistry Notes

Chapter 3: Matter-Properties and Change

Section 1

Substances

-​ matter that has a uniform and unchanging composition (a.k.a

Substance:

pure substance)
-​ These are always composed of the same substances in the same
percentages
-​ Seawater in not a substance
-​ Samples of seawater taken from different locations may have different
compositions
Physical vs. Chemical Properties

-​ Much of chemistry is focused on the process by which substances are

changed into different substances
-​ Physical properties: characteristics that can be observed or measured
without changing the samples composition
-​ Describe pure substances
-​ Extensive properties: dependent on the amount of substances present
-​ Mass depends on how much substance as does length and
volume
-​ Intensive properties: independent of the amount of substance present
-​ Density is the same no matter how much of the substance is
present
-​ Some properties are noy obvious unless the substance has changed
composition as a result of its contact with other substances or the application
of thermal or electric energy
-​ Chemical property: the ability of a substance to combine with or change into

one or more than one substance

-​ External conditions can affect both physical and chemical properties
-​ Temperature or pressure
Physical Properties of Copper

-​ Reddish-brown; shiny
-​ Malleable: easily shaped into sheets
-​ Ductile: easily drawn into wires
Chemical Properties of Copper

-​ Forms green copper carbonate compound when in contact with moist air
-​ Reacts with nitric acid and sulfuric acid, forming new substances
-​ One type of copper compound forms a deep-blue solution when in contact
with ammonia
States of Matter

-​ The physical forms in which all matter naturally exists on earth

-​ Solid: form of matter with its own definite shape and volume
 Chemistry Notes

-​ Liquid:form of matter that flows, has constant volume, and takes the shape of
its container
-​ Gas: form of matter that flows to conform to the shape of its container, and
fills the entire volume of its container
-​ Vapor: the gaseous state of a substance that is a solid or liquid at room
temperature

Section 2

Physical Changes in Matter

-​ Physical changes: altering a substance without changing its composition

-​ Ex. cutting paper, blowing up a balloon
-​ Blend, grind, crumple, split, or crush
-​ States of matter depend on the temperature and pressure of the
surroundings
-​ Phase change: a change from one state of matter to another

-​ Melting and formation of a gas are both physical changes and phase changes
-​ Ex. boil, freeze, condense, melt
Examples of physical changes

-​ Breaking glass
-​ Freezing a popsicle
-​ Spoiling milk
-​ Mowing the grass
-​ Slicing bread
-​ Roasting a marshmallow
-​ Cracking an egg
-​ Mixing kool aid with water
-​ Squeezing and orange for juice
-​ Evaporating water
-​ Popping popcorn
-​ Coloring hair
-​ Melting chocolate
Chemical changes in matter

-​ A process that involves one or more substance changing into a new

substance is called chemical change
-​ This is commonly referred to as a chemical reaction
-​ New substances are formed in the reaction that have different compositions
and different properties
-​ Ex. crushing grapes to make wine is physical; the fermentation process
is chemical
-​ When iron rusts the result is a new substance
-​ Starting substance= reactants
-​ New substance=products
 Chemistry Notes

Examples of Chemical Changes

-​ Iron rusting
-​ Burning wood
-​ Metabolism
-​ Cooking an egg
-​ Baking a cake
-​ Electroplating
-​ Rotting banana
-​ Vinegar and baking soda mixture
-​ Fireworks
-​ Chemical battery
Conservation of Mass

-​ states that mass is neither created nor

Law of Conservation of Mass

destroyed during a chemical reaction, only changing form; its conserved

-​ Massreactant = Massproducts
-​ H+O=H2O
-​ Products have the same mass as the reactants
​
Section 3

Mixture of Matter

-​ combination of two or more pure substances in which each pure

Mixture:

substance retains its individual chemical properties

-​ The composition of mixtures is varied, and the number of mixtures that can be
created by combining substances is infinite.
Types of mixtures

1. ​ Heterogeneous:does not blend smoothly throughout and the individual

substances remain distinct.
a.​ Ex. sand and water mixture (not uniform)
2.​ Homogeneous: constant composition throughout

a.​ Ex. the salt and water solution

b.​ Homogeneous mixture = Solution
c.​ Can be a solid, liquid, or gas
Examples of Homogeneous Mixtures

-​ Coffee
-​ Wine
-​ Air
-​ Brass
-​ Steel
-​ Natural Gas
-​ Vinegar
-​ Blood
 Chemistry Notes

Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures

-​ Chocolate chip cookies

-​ Pizza
-​ Soda with ice
-​ Sandwich
-​ Tossed salad
Alloy

-​ Alloy:homogeneous mixture of metals, or a mixture of metals and non-metals

in which the metal substance is the major component.
-​ Ex. Steel, bronze, and brass
Separating Mixtures

-​ Sometimes separating mixtures is easy

-​ Ex. separating a mixture of pennies and nickels.

-​ Sometimes separating a mixture is not easy

-​ Ex. separating a mixture of sand and iron filings.
Filtration

-​ Heterogeneous mixtures that are composed of a solid and a liquid are easily
separated by filtration.
-​ Filtration: a technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a
liquid.
Distillation

-​ a separation technique that is based on differences in the boiling

Distillation:

points of the substances involved

-​ Ex. a mixture is heated until the substance with the lowest boiling point
boils to a vapor that can then be condensed into a liquid and collected.
-​ Condensation: the energy releasing process by which a gas or vapor
becomes a liquid.
Crystallization

-​ Crystallization: a separation technique that results in the formation of pure

solid particles of a substance from a solution containing the dissolved
substance.
-​
Chromatography

-​ Chromatography: a technique that separates the components of a mixture

(mobile phase) on the basis of the tendency of each to travel or be drawn
across the surface of another material (stationary phase)
 Chemistry Notes

Section 4

Element and Compounds

-​ a pure substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances

Element:

by physical or chemical means

-​ On Earth 90 elements occur naturally
-​ Ex. copper, gold, oxygen
-​ Synthetic elements are man made/developed by scientists
Elements

1.​ Each element has a unique chemical name and symbol

2.​ The chemical symbol consists of one to three letters
3.​ The first letter is always capital
4.​ The remaining letters are always lowercase
Periodic Table

-​ Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, made the first version of the periodic
table
-​ Periodic Table: a chart that organizes all known elements into a grid of
horizontal rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups) arranged by
increasing atomic number.
Compounds

-​ Compound:a combination of two or more different elements that are

combined chemically
-​ Most everything is a compound
-​ Ex. water, salt, sugar, aspirin
-​ Chemical symbols of the periodic table make it easy to write the formulas for
chemical compounds
-​ Ex. salt and water
Law of Definite Proportions

-​ states that regardless of the amount, a

Law of Definite Proportions:

compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion

by mass
-​ Ex. granulated sugar and sugar cane
-​ The mass of the compound = the sum of the masses of the elements
making up the compound
-​ Ex. 5.00 grams of hydrogen and 20.0 grams of oxygen = 25.0
grams of water
Percent by Mass

-​ % by mass = mass of the element divided by the mass of the compound x 100
-​ Two samples from different sources = the same composition = same
compound
 Chemistry Notes

Chapter 4

Section 1:

Democritus

-​ He was a Greek philosopher who believed matter was made of tiny particles
called atomos.
-​ Atomos is where english gets their word atom
-​ He believed that atoms could be neither created nor destroyed. His beliefs and
ideas in the existence of atoms were ahead of its time but could not answer
other questions that philosophers had: “What holds atoms together?”
Aristotle

-​ He rejected the notion of atoms because it did not agree with his own ideas.
-​ He did not believe that atoms couldn’t move through empty space because he
did not believe that empty space could exist.
-​ His atomic theory was eventually rejected
-​ He proposed that matter was made of earth, fire air, and water
Dalton

-​ He revised Democritus’ ideas based on his research.

-​ The results of his research are known as Dalton’s atomic theory.

Section 2:

The Atom

-​ the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of the

Atom:

element.
-​ Scanning tunneling Microscope (STM): allows us to see and study atoms

because they are so small.

-​ How STMs work
-​ A fine point is moved above a sample and the interaction of the point
with the superficial atoms is recorded electronically.
The Cathode-Ray Tube

-​ A cathode-ray tube is a tube with an anode at one end and a cathode at the
other end.
-​ Cathode ray: ray originating from the cathode and traveling to the anode

-​ Cathode: electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery

-​ Anode: electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery

-​ When voltage is applied, electricity travels from the cathode and the anode.
 Chemistry Notes

Accidental discovery of cathode rays

-​ Sir William Crookes was working in a darkened lab one night and he noticed “a
flash of light” in one of the tubes. This flash was produced by some form of
radiation striking a coating that produced light at the end of the tube.
-​ Further work showed rays (radiation) traveling from the cathode to the
anode (cathode rays)
-​ This accidental discovery of cathode rays led to the discovery of the television
-​ TV and computer monitors
-​ Images are formed as radiation from the cathode strikes light,
producing chemicals that coat the back of the screen.
Cathode-ray tube experiments

-​ Cathode rays were actually a stream of charged particles

-​ These particles carried a negative charge
-​ These negatively charged particles that are part of all forms of matter are
now known as electrons.
J.J. Thompson

-​ J.J. Thompson began experiments to determine the mass of the charged

particle or electron.
-​ He concluded that the mass of the charged particle was much less than that
of a hydrogen atom
-​ This was a shocking conclusion because it meant that there were particles
even smaller than the atom-- dalton was wrong
-​ Scientists found this hard to believe because they thought Dalton had been
right but Thompson was correct and he had been the one to identify
electrons.
Robert Millikan

-​ He determined the charge of an electron and was later able to determine the
mass of an electron
-​ mass of an electron: 9.1x10-28
Plum pudding model

-​ J.J.Thompson's plum pudding model of the atom is a uniform, positively

charged sphere containing electrons
-​ This model of the atom did not last very long
Ernest Rutherford

-​ Ernest Rutherford began to study how positively charged alpha particles

interacted with solid matter
-​ He conducted an experiment to see if alpha particles would be deflected as
they passed through a thin gold foil
-​ He concluded that JJ Thompson was wrong about the plum pudding model
Rutherford’s experiment

-​ In the experiment, a narrow beam of alpha particles was aimed at a thin sheet
of gold foil
 Chemistry Notes

-​ A zinc-sulfide coated screen surrounding the gold foil produced a flash of light
when struck by an alpha particle
-​ By nothing where the flashes occurred, the scientists could determine if the
atoms in the gold foil detected the alpha particles
-​ Rutherford expected the light alpha particles to pass through gold atoms. He
expected only a few to be slightly defected. A few of the alpha particles were
deflected at large angles.
-​ Several of the particles were deflected straight back toward the source
Rutherford's early atomic model

-​ Rutherford calculated that an atom consists mostly of empty space through

which electrons move. He also concluded that almost all of the atom’s positive
charge and almost all of its mass were contained in a tiny dense region in the
center of the atom, which he called the nucleus.
-​ The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by their attraction
to the positively charged nucleus
Rutherford's conclusions

-​ Atom consisted mostly of empty space

-​ It had a tiny dense region called the nucleus and it was centrally located and
contained most of the atom's mass
-​ The positive charge of the nucleus balanced the negative charge of the
electron
-​ However, the model could still not count for the mass of the atom
-​ Another twenty years would pass before this would be solved
Protons and neutrons

-​ 1920, 8 years after his gold foil experiment, Rutherford concluded that the
nucleus contains positively charged particles called protons
-​ 1932, Rutherford's coworker, James Chadwick, showed that the nucleus
contained neutral particles, which he called neutrons, and that it had a mass
nearly equal to that of a proton, but it carried no electrical charge
 Chemistry Notes

Section 3:

Atomic number

-​ Not too long after the gold foil experiment, Henry Moseley discovered that
atoms of each element contain a unique positive charge in their nuclei
-​ Thus, the number of protons in an atom identifies it as an atom of a particular
element
-​ The number of protons in an element is referred to as the element’s atomic
number.

-​ Atomic number = number of protons

-​ Because all atoms are considered neutral:
-​ Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
-​ Ex Lithium atom
-​ What is the atomic number?
-​ 3
-​ How many protons?
-​ 3
-​ How many electrons?
-​ 3
Element Blocks

-​ Top to bottom
-​ Chemical name
-​ Atomic number
-​ Chemical symbol
-​ Atomic mass
How Atoms DIffer

-​ Dalton’s theory was incorrect on two points

-​ Atoms are divisible
-​ All atoms of an element are not identical
-​ All atoms of an element do have the same number of protons and electrons,
but the number of neutrons might be different
-​ Ex. There are 3 different types of potassium atoms. All three contain 19
protons and electrons. However, one type of potassium atom contains
20 neutrons, another contains 21 neutrons, and still another contains
22 neutrons.
Isotopes and Mass Number

-​ Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
referred to as isotopes
-​ Isotopes differ in mass
-​ More neutrons = greater mass
-​ Despite the difference in mass and number of neutrons, isotopes of the
same atom have the same chemical behavior
-​ This is because chemical behavior is based on the electron, not the
neutron
 Chemistry Notes

-​ To make it easier to identify these isotopes, chemists add a number

after the elements name
-​ Ex. Potassium-39 or Potassium-40
-​ Number specifies mass number
Mass Number

-​ Mass number - represents the number of protons and neutrons in the

nucleus
-​ The number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
-​ Chemists use the shorthand to write these isotopes
-​ Upper left - mass number
-​ Lower left - atomic number
-​ Right - element symbol

Mass of individual atoms

-​ The mass of a proton is about 1,67 times 10 -24 grams

-​ This is also the mass of a neutron
-​ The mass of an electron is only 1/1840 th that of a proton or neutron
-​ Since these masses are all small and difficult to work with, scientists have
developed a method of measuring the mass of an atom relative to the mass of
a specific atomic standard
-​ That standard is the carbon-12 atom
Carbon 12 atom

-​ Scientists assigned the carbon-12 atom a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass

units
-​ One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12
atom
-​ Atomic mass: the weighted average mass of the isotopes of that element
Atomic mass example

-​ Chlorine has an atomic mass of 35.453 amu

-​ It exists naturally as a mixture of 75% chlorine-35 and 25% chlorine-37
-​ Since the atomic mass is weighted average, the chlorine-35 at 75% has a
greater effect in determining the atomic mass
-​ You can calculate the atomic mass by multiplying the mass of each isotope by
its percentage abundance and summing the result

Section 4:

Nuclear Reactions

-​ Radioactivity: process in which some substances spontaneously emit

radiation
-​ Radiation: rays and particles that are emitted by radioactive material
-​ Nuclear reaction: a reaction that involves a change in an atom's nucleus

-​ Radioactive atoms emit radiation because their nuclei are unstable

Radioactive decay
 Chemistry Notes

-​ Radioactive decay:spontaneous process in which unstable nuclei lose energy

by emitting radiation
-​ Unstable atoms undergo radioactive decay until they form stable atoms,
which are often of a different element
-​ Ex. a rock using its gravitational potential energy

Types of Radiation

-​ Scientist begin investigating the effect of electric fields on radiation

-​ By direction radiation from a source between 2 electrically charged plates,
scientists were able to identify 3 different types of radiation based on their
electrical charge
-​ Alpha radiation
-​ Beta radiation
-​ Gamma radiation
Alpha radiation

-​ Alpha radiation: radiation that was deflected toward the negatively charged
plate.
-​ It is made up of alpha particles
-​ Alpha particles: contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons, thus having a 2+ charge.

-​ This explains why alpha particles are attracted by to the negatively charged
plate
-​ Nuclear equation: equation that shows the atomic numbers and mass

numbers of the particles involved.

Beta radiation

-​ Beta radiation: radiation that was deflected toward the positively charged
plate
-​ This radiation consists of fast-moving beta particles
-​ Beta particle: an electron with a 1-charge

-​ The negative charge of the beta particle explains why it is attracted to the
positively charged plate.
Gamma radiation

-​ Gamma radiation: high-energy radiation that possess no mass

-​ Because they are neutral, gamma rays are not deflected by electric or
magnetic fields.
-​ They usually accompany alpha and beta radiation and they account for most
of the energy lost during radioactive decays.
-​ Because gamma rays are massless, the emission of gamma rays by
themselves cannot result in the formation of a new atom.
 Chemistry Notes

Chapter 5

Section 2:

Atomic Orbitals

-​ three dimensional region around the nucleus which describes

Atomic Orbitals:

the electron's probable location

-​ Principal Energy Levels: the atoms major energy level or “n”
-​ Principal energy levels contain energy sublevels:
-​ Principal Energy Level one consists of one sublevel
-​ Principal Energy Level two consists of two sublevels
-​ Principal Energy Level three consists of three sublevels
Energy Sublevels

-​ Energy sublevels can be thought of as a section of seats in a theater. The

rows that are higher up and farther from the stage contain more seats, just
as energy levels that are farther from the nucleus contain more sublevels.
-​ As you move away from the center, the rows become higher and have more
seats
-​ Similarly, the # of energy sublevels in a principal energy level increases as "n"
increases
-​ Sublevels are labeled s, p, d, & f according to the shapes of the atom's orbital.
-​ S orbitals are spherical shaped
-​ P orbitals are dumbbell shaped
-​ Not all d or f orbitals have the same shape
-​ Each orbital may only contain 2 electrons
-​ The 2s sublevel consists of the 2s orbital
-​ It is spherical like the 1s orbital, only larger
Principal energy Sublevel (types of Number of orbitals Total number of

number (n) orbitals) present related to sublevel orbitals related to

principal energy
2
level (n )

1 S 1 1

2 S 1 4
P 3

3 S 1 9
P 3
D 5

4 S 1 16
P 3
D 5
F 7
 Chemistry Notes

Section 3:

Electron configurations

-​ The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called electron configuration

-​ Because low-energy systems are more stable than high-energy systems,
electrons in an atom tend to assume the arrangement that gives the atom
the lowest possible energy
-​ The most stable, lowest-energy arrangement of electrons in atoms of each
element is called the element’s ground-state electron configuration.
-​ There are three rules (or principles) that define how electrons can be
arranged in an atom's orbitals
-​ Rule 1: Aufbau Principle
-​ Rule 2: The Pauli Exclusion Principle
-​ Rule 3: Hund’s Rule
Aufbau Principle

-​ The Aufbau Principle: states each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital
available
-​ Therefore, the first step in determining an element’s ground-state electron
configuration is learning the sequence of the atomic orbitals from lowest to
highest energy. (this sequence is known as an Aufbau diagram)
-​ In the diagram, each box represents an atomic orbital
-​ All orbitals related to n energy sublevel are of equal energy
-​ Ex. all three 2p orbitals are of equal energy

-​ In a multi-electron atom, the energy sublevels within a principle energy level

have different energies.
-​ Ex. three 2p orbitals are f higher energy than 2s orbitals

-​ In order of increasing energy, the sequence of energy sublevels within a

principle energy level is s, p, d, and f.
-​ Orbitals related to the energy sublevels within one principle energy level can
overlap orbitals related to energy sublevels within another principle level
Pauli Exclusion Principle

-​ Pauli Exclusion Principle:states that a maximum of two electrons may occupy

a single atomic orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins
Hund’s Rule

-​ Hund's Rule:states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy
each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can
occupy the same orbitals
-​ Example:

-​ Let the boxes below represent the 2p orbitals

-​ One electron enters each of the 3 2p orbitals before a second electron
enters any of the orbitals
 Chemistry Notes

Electron Arrangement

-​ An atom's electron configuration can be represented by using one of two

methods:
-​ Orbital diagrams
-​ Electron Configuration Notation
Orbital Diagrams

-​ Orbital Diagrams contain:

-​ A box for each of the atom's orbitals
-​ An empty box that represents an unoccupied orbital
-​ A box containing a single up arrow; represents an orbital with 1 electron
-​ A box containing an up and down arrow; represents a filled orbital (2
electrons)
Electron Configuration Notation

-​ Electron Configuration Notation:

-​ Designates the principle energy level and energy sublevel associated
with each of the atom's orbitals
-​ Includes superscript representing the number of electrons in the
orbital
-​ Does not show the orbital distribution of electrons related to sublevels
Sublevel Diagram

-​ Shows the order in which the orbitals are usually filled

Noble Gas Notation

-​ Noble-gas notation: a method of representing electron configuration of noble

gases which uses bracketed symbols
-​ Noble gases - all elements in group 18
-​ Ex. [He] = 1s2; [Ne] = 1s2 2s2 2p6
-​ Compare [Ne] electron configuration to Na
-​ [Ne] = 1s2 2s2 2p6
-​ Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
-​ Using noble-gas notation, sodium’s electron configuration notation can be
shortened to the form [Ne] 3s1
-​ Ex. Titanium= [Ar] 4s2 3d2
Exceptions to Predicted Configuration

-​ The aufbau diagram can be used to write the correct ground-state electron
configuration notations for all elements up to and including vanadium, atomic
number 23
-​ If you were to proceed in this manner, configurations for some elements
cannot be predicted correctly
-​ This expectation represents the increased stability of half-filled and filled sets
of s and d orbitals
 Chemistry Notes

Valence electrons

-​ electrons in the outermost orbital- generally those orbitals

Valence electrons:

associated with the atom's highest principal energy level

-​ Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an element
-​ Ex. a sulfur atom contains 16 electrons, only six of which occupy the
outermost 3s and 3p orbitals
-​ S [Ne] 3s2 3p4
-​ Additional valence electron examples:
-​ Cesium has 55 electrons but only one valence electron: Cs [Xe]6s1
-​ Francium is the same group as cesium and also has 1 valence electron:
Fr [Rn] 7s1
Electron dot structures

-​ Valence electrons are involved in forming chemical bonds, so we often use a

shorthand method to represent them
-​ Electron-dot structure: consists of the elements symbol, which represents
the atomic nucleus and inner-level electrons, surrounded by dots
representing the atom’s valence electrons
-​ Also referred to as Lewis Dot Structures
-​ American chemist G. N. Lewis devised this method
-​ How it works:
-​ Dots representing valence electrons are placed one at a time on the
four sides of the symbol (they may be placed in any sequence), and
then paired up until all are used.
 Chemistry Notes

Chapter 6

Section 1:

Development of Periodic Table

-​ John Newlands

-​ Noticed that when elements were arranged by increasing atomic mass,

that the first and eighth elements had similar properties, the second
and ninth elements has similar properties and so on
-​ Newland named this periodic relationship in chemical properties the law
of octaves because an octave is a group of musical notes that repeats
eighth tone
-​ While Newland’s law was not generally accepted, he was basically
correct in that the properties of elements do repeat in a periodic way
-​ Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev

-​ Each demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and element

properties
-​ Mendeleev is given more credit because he organized the elements into
the first period table
-​ Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered
elements
-​ Dmitri Mendeleev

-​ His periodic table was still not fully correct

-​ After several new elements were discovered and atomic masses of
elements were more accurately determined, it became known that the
several elements in his period table were not in the correct order
-​ Henry Moseley

-​ Discovered that atoms of each element contained a unique number of

protons in their nuclei (# protons = atomic number)
-​ Arranged elements of increasing atomic number instead of atomic
mass and discovered a clear pattern of properties
Modern Periodic Table

-​ Contains boxes consisting of element name, symbol, atomic number, and

atomic mass
-​ Boxes are arranged in order of increasing atomic number into a series of
columns called groups and a series of rows called periods
-​ Groups designated with A (1A - 8A) are referred to as main group or
representative elements

-​ This is because they possess a wide range of chemical and physical

properties
-​ Groups designated with B (1B - 8B) are referred to as the transition elements
 Chemistry Notes

Classifying the Elements

-​ These are three main classifications for the elements - metals, nonmetals, and
metalloids
-​ Metals- elements that are generally shiny when smooth and clean, solid at
room temp, and good conductors of heat and electricity
-​ Ductile- Has ability to be drawn into wire
-​ Malleable- Hammered into sheets
-​ Most elements in group A and all elements in group 6
-​ Alkali Metals- all groups 1A elements except hydrogen
-​ Alkaline earth metals- all group 2A elements
-​ Group B or transition elements are divided into transition and inner transition
metals

-​ Two sets of inner transition metals are located at the bottom of the
periodic table (known as lanthanide and actinide series)
-​ Transition metals- elements in groups 3-12
-​ Nonmetals are generally gaseous elements or brittle, dull-looking solids

-​ Halogens- highly reactive group 7A elements

-​ Noble gases- extremely unreactive 8A elements

-​ Metalloids- elements with physical and chemical properties of both metals and

nonmetals
 Chemistry Notes

Section 2:

Organizing Elements by Electron Configuration

-​ Recall that valence electrons are electrons in highest principal energy level of
an atom
-​ Valence electrons are only present in group elements in the s and p blocks of
the periodic table
-​ Atoms in the same group have similar chemical properties because they have
the same number of valence electrons.
-​ Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of an element
Valence Electrons and Period

-​ The energy level of an element's valence electrons indicates the period where
the element can be found
-​ Examples:
-​ [He] 2s1 Lithium's valence electrons are in principle energy level 2 so
Lithium is in period 2
Practice Problems

Notation Valence Group Period Element

Electrons

[Ne]3s
2
2 2 3 Mg

[He]2s
2
2 2 2 Be
2
[Kr]5s 4d
10
5p
5
7 17 5 I
 Chemistry Notes

Section 3:

Atomic Radius

-​ The outer limit of an electron cloud is defined as the spherical surface within
which there is a 90% probability of finding an electron
-​ Atomic size is defined by how closely an atom lies to a neighbouring atom
-​ For metals such as sodium, the atomic radius is defined as half the distance
between adjacent nuclei in a crystal of the element.
Atomic radius- trends within Periods

-​ In general there is a decrease in atomic radii as you move from left to right
across a period
-​ This trend is caused by the increasing positive charge in the nucleus and the
fact that the principle energy level within a period remains the same
-​ Atomic radii generally increase as you move down a group
-​ Nuclear charge increases and electrons are added to successively higher
principal energy levels
Ionic radius

-​ Atoms can gain or lose one or more electrons to form ions

-​ Ion- an atom or bonded group of atoms that has a positive or negative​
charge
-​ when atoms lose electrons and become positively charged, they become
smaller
-​ When atoms gain electrons and become negatively charged, they become
bigger
Ionic radius- trends within period and groups

-​ In general, as you move left-to-right across a period, the size of the positive
ions gradually decreases
-​ As you move down a group, an ion’s outer electrons are in a higher principal
energy level, resulting in a gradual increase in ionic size
Ionization energy

-​ In order to form a positive ion, an electron must be removed from a neutral

atom, which requires energy
-​ Ionization energy- energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous

atom
-​ Atoms with large ionization energy values are less likely to form positive ions
-​ Atoms with low ionization energy values are more likely to form positive ions
Ionization energy- trends within periods and groups

-​ Ionization energy increases as you go across a period.

-​ The increased nuclear charge of each successive element produce an
increased hold on the valence electrons
-​ Ionization energy decreases as you move down a group
-​ This decreases occurs because atomic size increase as you move
down the group
 Chemistry Notes

-​ With valence electrons farther from the nucleus, less energy is required
to remove them
Octet rule

-​ The Octet Rule - states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in
order to acquire a full set of 8 valence electrons
-​ Remember, no element can have more than 8 valence electrons
Electronegativity

-​ Electronegativity- indicates the relative ability of its atoms to attract electrons

in a chemical bond
-​ Trends within periods and groups:
-​ Electronegativity generally decreases as you move down a group
-​ Electronegativity increases as you move across a period
-​ The lowest electronegativities are found at the lower left of the periodic
table