DOC-20250118-WA0018.

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: AEM: 503
COURSE TITLE: DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS
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COURSE GUIDE
AEM: 503
Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations
Course Developer/Writer Dr. Tosan Fregene
Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries Management
Ibadan, Nigeria
Course Editor Dr. N.E Mundi
School of Science & Technology
National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos
Programme Leader Dr. N.E Mundi
Course Co-ordinator Mr. Awolumate Samuel
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National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office:
NOUN Building
No. 5, Dar es Sallam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2008
ISBN: 978-058-605-9
All Rights Reserved
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Content Page
What you will learn in this Course
Course Aims
Course Objective
Course Description
Course Materials
Study units
Set textbooks
Course assessment
Tutor-marked assignment
Final Examination and grading
Tutor and tutorial
Conclusion
What you will Learn in this Course
Welcome to AEM 503 Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations Course!
You are beginning a course about how innovations are ddiffused adopted. The course is made up
of twelve study units. Your study time for each unit will vary from one to four weeks. You will
find more detailed information about the contents of each unit in the section of this Course Guide
entitled "Course Description". Each study unit contains a number of self-tests. These allow you
to check your progress as you work through each topic. At the end of each self-test is a question
about your own experience. It is advisable that you think very well about these questions. You
are requested to apply the material you have just read to your experience in your Local
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Government Area or the country. All the questions are discussed in the final unit and tutorials.
Some of your recommended textbooks are written by non- Nigerians. You will therefore, judge
whether all or some of the materials contained in them apply in the Nigerian environment. Your
opinion here therefore, matters a lot, as there are various answers to these questions. You will
learn some new terms and expressions during the course of the study. You will also come into
contact with new ideas, which may make you look at the concept of iinnovations from an
entirely different perspective.
The study units, textbooks and exercises will help you master the topics over a period of about
18 weeks. Before looking at study units or your textbooks, you should read this Course Guide
thoroughly. It tells you:
• The aims and Objectives of the course
• What the course covers.
• The components of the course.
• The amount of study time you need to cover the course successfully.
• How your performance in assignments and the examination will be assessed.
• How the tutorial system works.
You will probably need to refer to this Course Guide throughout the course to clarify important
points about studying with the National Open University (NOU) of Nigeria
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Course Aims
Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations aims to provide you with the basic introduction to
processes of diffusion, adoption and innovation, as well as diffusion of innovation. It also intends
to identify characteristics of innovation, rate of adoption, adopter categories as well as the roles
of opinion leadership and Change agents. At the end of the course we shall be able to identify the
factors enhancing effective agricultural extension in rural areas
An integrated approach is used in the study of Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations in which
both national and locally specific aspects are examined. National and local experiences are
highlighted to illustrate certain issues.
Course Objectives
After the course has been completed, you should be able to:
1. Define diffusion and enumerate the elements of diffusion,
2. Explain the processes of adoption and innovation, as well as diffusion of innovation
3. Identify characteristics of innovation, rate of adoption and adopter categories
4. Differentiate between leadership and Change agents
5. Attempt to theoretical formulation on the diffusion of innovations and Implication of these
processes
Course Description
One of the most important functions of Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations is to bridge gap
between research centers and the farmers for introduction of improved technologies or methods
of agriculture. In other words successful communication is the main job of an extension worker.
An extension worker’s job does not end with merely informing the farmers about improved
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practices, he should ensure practical application (by the farmers) of the result of research and
field trials. Extension officer’s efficiency can be measured:
(a) By the speed or quickness with which the gap between what is known and what is done by
the farmers is bridged.
(b) By the number of new practices adopted; and
(c) Also by the number of farmers and communities that adopt the new practices.
There are fifteen study units in this course:
Unit 1: Definition of Diffusion
Unit 2: Elements of diffusion
Unit 3: Process of adoption
Unit 4: Diffusion of innovation
Unit 5: Innovation Model
Unit 6: The innovation decision process
Unit 7: Characteristics of innovation
Unit 8: Factors Determining the Rates of Adoption
Unit 9: Adopter categories
Unit 10 Opinion leadership
Unit 11: Change agents
Unit 12: Theoretical formulations on the diffusion of innovations
Unit 13: Sectors related to differential rates of adoption of new agricultural technology;
Unit 14: Implication of these processes
Unit 15: Factors of effective agricultural extension in rural areas
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The units build on each other to work from explaining what diffusion, innovation and adoption
are to how you can become a change agent by applying all that you have learnt in this course. If
you have completed the pre-requisite courses, you will find certain concepts in some familiar
units. But if you have not completed the pre-requisite courses, you may need to spend a little
extra time familiarizing yourself with some of the ideas.
However, this should not create any problems for you.
In this course, you shall be made to understand that bringing about change requires the
organization of an innovation process. The process of diffusion and adoption of innovation has
therefore provided an important basis for extension education especially in the fields of
agriculture, health services and consumer behaviours.
There are adequate tutorial hours designed to assist you, try gain full advantage from tutorials
you need to be up to date with your study. Tutorials are not lectures but are designed to allow
group discussion and input. You get the most from a tutorial session, if you contribute your ideas
and opinions. Tutorials do not assist learners when they make no input. Your tutor will lead
discussions and needs your help to make sessions successful.
The Course Calendar provides an overview of the course. It suggests the amount of time you
should use to complete the units and helps you to plan your study schedule. It can be adjusted to
fit your personal needs more closely.
The time needed to complete the study units, work through the practice exercises and
assignments, and complete the other work involved in this course depends on your analytical
ability and background. You need to plan your own study schedule carefully. The estimated time
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you need to spend on this course is about 10 hours per week. This estimate includes time for
reading the study units and studying the textbooks, completing self-tests and practice exercises,
completing your assignments, undertaking the suggested reviews, attending tutorials and
preparing for your final examination.
You must complete and hand in your written assignments on time. Therefore, you need to plan
and distribute your study time accordingly. There are four assignments known as Tutor Marked
Assignment (TMAs) altogether to be marked by your tutor. One of these TMAs is required (i.e.
you must hand your assignment to gain the specific amount of Overall Continuous Assessment
Scores (OCAS) that is assigned to this TMAs). Other than this, the best three out of the other
four will be counted towards your usual OCAS. You can find more information on assignments
in a later section of this Course Guide.
Course Material
In addition to this Course Guide, there are the following important components of the course. At
this time, please ensure that you have all of these materials available and can identify the various
components in the course if you do not have the NOU- produced materials, you should contact
the NOU immediately. The textbooks, however, are your own responsibility. These can be
obtained from the Academic and professional book centers: The addresses for the branches are in
the book list that is sent to you.
Study Units
Although we have recommended the amount of time you should spend on each study unit, you
may prefer to study material in a slightly different way. There is provision to detour from the
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pattern of the course, but you must complete the practice exercises, assignments and examination
successfully. The course is structured so that each unit builds upon previous knowledge.
Each unit includes at least seven different ways to help you study Diffusion and Adoption of
Innovations.
These are:
1. Reading the study unit
2. Reading the textbooks
3. Testing your comprehension and analytical skills by working through the self- test Questions
which appears throughout the units.
4. Undertaking the activities that appear throughout the units. These activities will ask you to
think, observe, or under take some activities designed to help you apply your knowledge to your
own experience.
5. Completing the practice exercises in each unit.
6. Preparing and writing problem-solving assignment
7. Asking you questions about your own experiences. Your answers help you link your
experience to the course material and to Nigerian culture.
You must read each unit carefully. It provides a commentary on the textbooks and introduces
you to additional material. Each unit also tells you how and when to complete your
assignments. If you don't read the study units carefully, you may miss important information.
Your study notes are designed to guide you through your textbooks.
You must read both the study notes and the texts. They are not alternatives to each other.
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It is also helpful to read as widely as possible. Try to read articles in newspapers and journals,
other books on the topic, and related cases. The more you read, the better your appreciation and
understanding of the subject will be.
Each unit directs you to read specific pages from chapters in the textbook. You are expected to
study and understand the principles and concepts involved. Each unit contains self-test question,
usually short ones, providing a duck on your understanding of a technique or principle you have
just read about. By attempting these short questions, you will have instant feedback on your
progress. You should attempt to answer all the self-text questions before looking at the answers.
This will help you to prepare for your assignments and examination. After each self-test there is
a question on your own experience!
At the end of each unit there is one practice exercise, which covers all areas you have studied in
that unit. It is important to complete all the practice exercises. This will expose you to the types
of questions you will be required to answer in assignments and in your final examination and
also introduce you to some problems encountered in business, organizations and real life-
situations. The questions reflect the demands of the unit objectives; they are designed to help you
understand and apply those principles covered in the unit.
Set Text Books
There are no compulsory textbooks for Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations
Read as many textbooks, newspaper/journal articles on the subject as possible
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Assignment File
Assignment questions for the units of this course are contained in the section of the course
materials entitled Assignment file. You are required to complete your assignments and mail them
together with a tutor-marked assignment (TMA) form to your tutor.
Course Assessment
Your assessment for this course is made up of two components:
 tutor-marked assignment (TMAs)
 a final examination
The practice exercise is not part of your assessment but it is important to complete all of them.
Tutor-Marked Assignments
This course has four assignments, which you will find in your Assessment File with detailed
instructions on how to complete them. Your tutor will mark and comment on them. Pay attention
to the feedback and use it to improve your other assignments.
You will see from the course time table the dates to submit in your assignments. The marks for
the required TMAs and the best three out of four will be recorded and count towards your final
mark for the credit for this course. Presently, the university has adopted electronic e-TMA which
comprises eighty multiple or objective questions since 2009/2010 session.
You can write the assignments using the materials from your study units and textbooks. But it is
preferable in all degree level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more
widely than the required minimum. Using other references will give you a different viewpoint
and a deeper understanding of the subject. But do remember that copying from any sources
without acknowledgement is plagiarism and is not acceptable. You must make reference
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when you refer to or quote from others' work. The minimum information needed is: author's
name, date of publication, title, edition, publisher and place of publication.
The nature of the assignments varies, but they normally consist of either case studies or
questions relating to the cases, short essays or short answer questions. It is useful to illustrate
any theoretical points with examples from your own experience. This allows you to demonstrate
your understanding of the application of theory to real life situations
Below are the total marks allocated to the assignments and to your final examination:
Title Value
TMA 30%
Exam 70%
100%
Final Examination and Grading
There is three-hour examination at the end of this course. Use the time between finishing the last
unit and the examination to review the whole course. Review your practice exercises and
assignments and your tutor's comments on them before sitting for the examination. You will be
advised of examination arrangements after you send in your examination registration card.
The final examination for AEM 503 Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations covers information
from all parts of the course and has the same format as the specimen examination paper, which
will be discussed in the half-day school. The examination will not contain "trick" questions or
questions that try to confuse you. That is, not consistent with the open approach, the NOU
approach is difference. To earn a passing grade for the course you must submit at least three
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TMAs including the required TMA, and attain a passing grade (i.e. at least score 40) on these
and on your final examination.
Tutor and Tutorials:
Your tutor marks and comments on your assignments, keep close watch on your progress and on
any difficulties you encounter, and provide you with assistance.
Assignments should be mailed in accordance with the course calendar. They will be marked by
your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
It is a good idea to keep a copy of all the assignments you send to your tutor for marking. The
copies will prove useful, should you wish to make reference to them during telephone
conversations, or if they are lost in the mail.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone if you need help. Here are typical
circumstances in which help is necessary. Contact your tutor if:
• You do not understand any part of the study Units or the assigned readings
• You have any difficulty with self-tests or practices exercises
• You have a question or problem with assignments, with your tutor's comments, or grading on
an assignment.
Tutors have complete authority on two points. First, they are responsible for the grade you
receive on assignments. If you disagree with a mark, discuss it with your tutor.
Second, they alone decide if you may or may not rewrite an assignment.
To assist you in this course, regular tutorials are organized with your assigned tutor.
Very interesting activities are designed for the tutorials. They also give you an opportunity to
sort out any problems. You will be notified of their dates, times, and location, together with the
name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. We strongly
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recommend that you attend these tutorials and the half-day school. They provide considerable
assistance in your study of this course and improve your chances of gaining high marks. They
also let you meet other learners studying through the NOU.
Tutors are required to start tutorial day school sessions on time. If a tutor fails to turn up
30 minutes after the scheduled starting time, students may assume that the session is cancelled
and they should report the case to the course coordinator so that a make-up session can be
arranged.
TMA extension Policy
The assignment policy of the University as stated in the student Handbook should be observed.
Applications for extension of up to seven days should be submitted to the tutor. For extensions of
over seven days, students should note the following:
1. Assignment extensions may be granted in extenuating circumstances, which should be
interpreted as circumstances that are unexpected. Work commitments and traveling are
not regarded as extenuating circumstances unless they are unexpected.
2. Supporting documents must be submitted along with the application for extension of over
seven days to justify the claim. Applications without supporting documents will not be
considered.
3. Applications for extension should be submitted either before or on the due date.
4. The decision to grant or refuse an extension is made by:
* The course coordinator for extensions of up to 21 days;
* The Dean for extensions of over 21 days.
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If the assignment is posted to the tutor, it is the responsibility of the student to check with their
tutor that the assignment has successfully arrived. Extension applications without supporting
documents on the ground of postal loss will not be accepted. The University cannot accept any
responsibility for assignments that are not received by your tutor due to problems with the post.
As a precaution, you are advised to keep a copy of each assignment you submit and obtain a
certificate of posting from the post office when you post your assignment.
Conclusion
AEM 503 Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations is a subject that should interest anybody who is
concerned about the quality of life in the rural areas either in Nigeria or any Third world Country
of Africa and Asia. The course has therefore, been designed to help you understand the most
complex problems of the developing nations which is that of modernizing the rural areas. It
requires both conceptual and analytical skills. You must analyze and apply concepts to
understand the nature and philosophy of Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations.
Hopefully, you will find it fun, interesting and useful as an administrator or a policymaker (or
potential ones) interested in the development of your country. Good luck, and enjoy the course.
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CONTENTS PAGE
Unit 1: Definition of Diffusion, Innovation and Adoption………………..………19
Unit 2: Elements of diffusion……………………………………………………….26
Unit 3: Process of adoption…………………………………………………….........32
Unit 4: Diffusion of innovation……………………………………………………….36
Unit 5: Innovation Model …………………………………………………………43
Unit 6: The innovation decision process……………………………………………...48
Unit 7: Characteristics of innovation………………………………………………….54
Unit 8: Adoption rate………………………………………………………………….59
Unit 9: Adopter categories……………………………………………………………...68
Unit 10: Opinion leadership…………………………………………………………….75
Unit 11: Change agents…………………………………………………………………85
Unit 12: Theoretical formulations on the diffusion of innovations…………………….91
Unit 13: Sectors related to differential rates of adoption of new
Agricultural technology…………………………………………………………97
Unit 14: Implication of these processes ………………………………………………...104
Unit 15: Factors of effective agricultural extension in rural areas………………………113
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Unit 1 Definition of Diffusion, Innovation and Adoption
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Diffusion
3.2 Definition of Innovation
3.3 Definition of Adoption
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
In this unit you will be provided with the general background information by introducing
you to the definitions of diffusion, innovation and adoption. Diffusion is the process by
which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members
of a social system. The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple
disciplines. Rogers defines an innovation as "an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new
by an individual or other unit of adoption and to adopt an innovation means to acquire a
new product or behavior.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define the concept of diffusion
 Explain the concept of innovation
 Define the concept of adoption
 Differentiate between diffusion and adoption
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Diffusion
Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels
over time among the members of a social system. It is a special type of communication
concerned with the spread of messages that are perceived as new ideas. In today’s world,
information technologies such as the Internet and cell phones – which combine aspects of
mass media and interpersonal channels, represent formidable tools of diffusion. It is this
‘newness’ of the idea in the message content of communication that gives diffusion its
special character.
3.2 Definition of Innovation
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual or other
unit of adoption. An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by
an individual or other unit of adoption. The technologies, practices developed through
research are innovations. These may be new varieties of crops and plants, new breeds of
livestock or fish species, new chemicals and medicines, new technique of doing things
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etc. Farmers themselves may develop some new practices, which are also innovations.
Irrespective of the time period the idea or practice was originally developed, when a
person first become aware of it, it is an innovation to that person. There are two
categories of innovation/technologies namely: material and knowledge based technology
I. Knowledge Based Technology
Within the context of knowledge based technology, "adoption" refers to the stage in which a
technology is selected for use by an individual or an organization. "Innovation" is similarly used
with the nuance of a new or "innovative" technology being adopted. "Diffusion" refers to the
stage in which the technology spreads to general use and application. "Integration" connotes a
sense of acceptance, and perhaps transparency, within the user environment.
Typically, past adoptions of a new technology for education have signaled a confidence in its
potential to alleviate a particular problem or to make a job easier or more efficient. Rarely has
bringing about new social and functional conditions been a consideration. Internet and World
Wide Web technology, however, may provide a means of creating totally new learning
environments, and it may be to that end that adoption is initiated. In such instances, "innovation"
and "adoption" may be seen as virtually synonymous elements of the adoption/diffusion process.
Since early in this century, various "new" educational technologies have been touted as the
revolutionary pedagogical wave of the future. Classroom films, programmed learning devices,
language laboratories, educational television, computer-assisted instruction and, more recently,
interactive videodisc technology have been adopted and integrated into the curriculum with
varying degrees of success. Each technology was widely perceived as meeting a need, and each
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gained a measure of initial commitment of resources from a high level administrative or
legislative entity. Their adoption and diffusion process generally followed what has been termed
the "traditional model," a "top-down" process in which administrative "mandate" introduced the
technology and administrative perceptions, decisions and strategies drove adoption and diffusion.
Successful adoption was highly dependent on the degree, stability and wisdom of administrative
sponsorship.
None of these technologies, however, has been generally available for individual or private use
due to cost, scope or application. This deterred a "grass roots" technology adoption cycle as it
was nearly impossible to generate movement from the bottom up by influencing faculty peers
and administrators with demonstrations of successful applications.
Today's educational generation, however, sees personal computers, the Internet and the World
Wide Web as technology's new wave. Proponents of distributed learning environments and
distance learning on the World Wide Web forecast dramatic innovation at all levels and in all
areas of education. And although this enthusiasm is reminiscent of that of past innovators, there
are significant differences in the nature of this technology revolution in education and that of
earlier ones with corresponding implications for adoption and diffusion.
Unlike earlier technologies which were thrust upon the education community, Internet
technology is individually available to faculty and students who can use their own systems to
serve their own purposes. The impetus for the innovation frequently grows from individual users
of the technology, and as their communication and influence moves laterally through their
contacts, a body of support can grow and exert "pressure" on the institutional administration to
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commit to adoption of the technology. There is, therefore, a high potential for a "bottom-up" or
"grass roots" adoption process to succeed.
Indeed, Everett Rogers (1986), considered by many the "guru" of adoption/diffusion research
since publishing Diffusion of Innovations (now in its fourth edition) in 1960, reveals three
important ways in which the adoption of interactive communications differs from that of
previous innovations. 1) A critical mass of adopters is needed to convince the "mainstream"
teachers of the technology's efficacy. 2) Regular and frequent use is necessary to ensure success
of the diffusion effort. 3) Internet technology is a tool that can be applied in different ways and
for different purposes and is part of a dynamic process that may involve change, modification
and reinvention by individual adopters.
Internet technology actually embodies a number of technologies--e-mail, databases, chat rooms,
information and education resources, among others. Additionally, the Internet exhibits many
elements that constitute a culture or community--language, symbols, rituals, interaction, and
other elements of communication. It thus essentially becomes an environment into which users
enter (December, 1993; North, 1995). "Visionary" innovation and "pragmatic" application can
begin with grass-roots enthusiasts who enter this environment. Viewed as a culture or
community, however, the Internet can be perceived as a threatening competitor to the established
norms of an existing culture or community, such as an academic department or some other
institutional entity.
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II Materials Innovation Technologies
This develops innovative technical solutions for the manufacture of complex-shaped
performance composite parts. It advances materials such as carbon fiber, aramid fibers, fiber
glass, natural fibers, and hybrids, along with proprietary manufacturing processes to successfully
develop solutions for the emerging technology needs of the Aerospace, Automotive, Defense,
Mass Transit, and Recreational Sporting Goods markets, just to name a few. We offer extensive
knowledge in product development and commercialization.
3.3 Definition of Adoption
According to Rogers (1995) Adoption process is a mental process through which an
individual passes from hearing about an innovation to final adoption. The adoption of a
practice is not a unit act and instantaneous. The farmer’s decision to accept or reject
adoption of science based production technology consists of several stages and involves
sequence of thoughts and decisions.
3.4 Differentiation Between Diffusion and Adoption
Diffusion is a social process while adoption is a mental and is individual process. Diffusion
and adoption are thus closely interrelated concepts and processes.
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4.0 Conclusion
The spread of an innovation within a social system is called diffusion and adoption is a
decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available. An
innovations is essentially a new technology or idea of doing something
5.0 Summary
In this unit we have been able to define diffusion, innovation and adoption as well as
differentiate between the first and the third. These definitions are crucial to what we shall
discuss in the next units.
Differentiate between diffusion, innovation and adoption.
7.0 References/Further Reading
Ban, A. W. Van den and Hawkins, H. S. Hawkins (1996) Agricultural Extension,
Blackwell Science, Second edition, 294p
Leeuwis Cees (2003) Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Ex
Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.tension,
CTA, 412p
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Unit 2
Elements of Diffusion
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Elements of Diffusion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1. Introduction
Most individuals do not evaluate an innovation on the basis of scientific studies of its
consequences, although such objective evaluations are not entirely irrelevant, especially
to the very first individuals who adopt. Instead most people depend mainly on subjective
evaluation of an innovation, conveyed to them from individuals like themselves who
have previously adopted the innovations. This dependence on the experience of peers
which indicates that diffusions is a social process and the heart of diffusions process
consists of the modelling and imitation by potential adopters of their network partners
who have adopted previously. We shall discuss in details the elements of diffusion in this
unit.
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2. Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to
 Enumerate the elements of diffusion
 Identify the role of these elements in adoption of innovations.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Elements of Diffusion
The four main elements involved in diffusion are as follows:
1. Innovation
2. Communication Channels
3. Time
4. Social System
We shall now discuss in details about these four elements of diffusion.
3.2 Role of Elements in Adoption of Innovations
3.2.1 Innovation
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new or an improvement
over the existing one by the individual or members of a social system. If the idea seems
new, it is an innovation. The innovation may represent a slight modification of a
significant departure from, the existing idea or practice. The “idea” constitutes the central
element of an innovation which often manifests itself in a material or behavioural form.
Most agricultural innovations manifest a material form, which includes improved

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implements, high- yielding and disease resistant seeds, hardy and fast growing fish, bio-
fertilizers, botanical pesticides and herbicides. Some innovations manifest themselves in
behavioural forms such as improved cultural practices.
3.2.2 Communication Channels
A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to
another. Mass media channels are all those means of transmitting messages that involve a
mass medium such as radio, television, newspapers and others, which enable a source of
one or a few individuals to reach an audience of many. On the other hand, interpersonal
channels are more effective in persuading an individual to accept a new idea, especially if
the interpersonal channel links two or more individuals who are similar in socio-
economic status, education, or other important ways. Interpersonal channels involve a
face-to-face exchange between two or more individuals.
3.2.3 Time
The third element in diffusion process is time. Time is involved in diffusion in
 The innovation – decision process
 Innovativeness
 Innovation’s rate of adoption
The innovation – decision process is the mental process through which an individual or
other decision making unit passes from first knowledge of an innovation to forming an
attitude towards the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the
new idea, and to confirmation of this decision. We conceptualize five steps in this process
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(i) knowledge, (ii) persuasion, (iii) decision, (iv) implementation, and (v) confirmation.
An individual seeks information at various stages in the innovation – decision process in
order to decrease uncertainty about innovation’s expected consequences. The decision
stage leads to adoption, a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of
action available, or to rejection. We shall discuss this in the next unit under the adoption
process.
Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively
earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of a social system. Based on
innovativeness, the adopters can be classified into five categories: (i) innovators, (ii) early
adopters, (iii) early majority, (iv) late majority and (v) laggards. In unit 8, the adoption
categories shall be discussed.
Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members
of a social system. The rate of adoption is usually measured by the length of time
required for a certain percentage of the members of a system to adopt an innovation. It is
a system perspective rather than an individual as a unit of analysis. There are differences
in the rate of adaption for the same innovation in different social system. The various
criteria that influences adoption rate will be discussed in unit 7.
3.2.4 Social System
A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem
solving to accomplish a common goal. The members or units can be individuals, informal
groups, organizations, or sub systems. The sharing of common objective binds the system
together. Diffusion occurs within a social system. The social structure of the system
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influence how and what information is disseminated. Knowledge of social structure is
important to consider while studying diffusion. A village as a social system is made up of
a variety of individuals and groups with distinctive statuses, roles, norms and goals all of
which functionally relate to each other to attain its major goals and objectives. The
structure of a social system constitutes a set of boundaries within which innovation
diffuse. The differences in the adoption of agricultural innovations at the village level can
often be explained in terms of their differences in structural characteristics. The degree to
which a village is structurally homogeneous or heterogeneous, affects the rate of
diffusion of agricultural innovations within its boundaries. The information can be
distributed through formal (Government) and informed communication structures (peers,
groups etc.).
4.0 Conclusion
The four main elements involved in diffusion affect level and rate at which an innovation
is adopted. The rate of adoption is usually measured by the length of time required for a
certain percentage of the members of a system to adopt an innovation. Based on
innovativeness, the adopters can be classified into five categories.
5.0 Summary
We have been able to identify the four elements of diffusion. These are the innovation,
communication channels, time and the social system. The social structure of the system
influence how and what information is disseminated.
30
Discuss the elements involved in diffusion.
7.0 References/Further Reading
Ban, A. W. V an den and Hawkins, H. S. Hawkins (1996) Agricultural Extension,
Leeuwis Cees (2003) Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural
Extension, CTA, 412p
MANAGE (2007) Course 102 Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations
Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM), Published
by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, India,
http://www.manage.gov.in/pgdaem/studymaterial/manage102/manage%20book%20102-
block1.pdf
31
Unit 3
Process of Adoption
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Process of Adoption
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The decision to adopt an innovation is not normally a single, instantaneous act. It is a
decision making process involving a period of time during which an individual goes through
a number of mental stages before making a final decision to adopt an innovation. This
situation is better explained in terms of stages in adoption and innovation decision process.
Technologies/innovation are developed as a result of observed deficiencies in a current way
of doing things or emanates from new discoveries about things before innovation. Hence
technologies are either completely or partly new and are often expected to replace existing
practice. Technologies are meant to be incorporated into farming systems of farmers that is
adopted. How this is done is the focus of this unit.
32
2.0 Objectives
After reading this unit, the student should be able to
 Identify the stages involved in adoption process
 Discuss various stages or steps involved in adoption process
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Process of Adoption
A diffusion of innovation with in a social system takes place through its adoption by
individual or groups. Adoption is a decision to make full use of an innovation as the best
course of action available. The decision to adopt an innovation, involves a process
composed of learning, deciding, and acting over a period of time. The adoption process,
as a decision-making process goes through a number of mental stages before making a
final decision to adopt an innovation. Decision - making is a process comprising a
sequence of stages with a distinct type of activity occurring during each stage. The way in
which an individual adopts an innovation is involves the following five steps namely
Awareness stage, Interest stage, Evaluation stage, Trial stage and Adoption stage
(AIETA).
a) Awareness Stage
This is the starting stage wherein the farmer comes to know the existence of the new idea but he
doesn’t have full information about the idea. At this stage farmer is aware of the idea, but lacks
detailed information about it.
33
b) Interest Stage
The farmer develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional information about it either
from extension officer or from fellow farmers or from any source, which he feels credible. That
means the farmer acquires more information about an innovation or idea by wanting to know
what the innovation/idea is, how it works and what its potentialities are.
c) Evaluation Stage
At the evaluation stage, the farmer makes mental application of the new idea in the present and
anticipated future situations and decides whether or not to try it. He judges the utility of the
innovation, makes an assessment whether the idea is applicable to own situation and if applied
what would be the result.
d) Trial Stage
The farmers may not take up any new idea and an innovation right away on a large scale because
he/she doesn’t want to take risk even though the potential of the idea has been proved. The new
idea is applied on a small scale in order to determine its utility or feasibility and applicability in
own situation.
e) Adoption Stages
Being satisfied with the performance of the new idea tested on small scale in his own situation,
the farmer uses the new idea continuously on a full scale. Trial may be considered as the
practical evaluation of an innovation. The innovation becomes a part of his normal farming
34
activity. It provides the advantage of the innovation and hence the farmer takes final decision and
applies the innovation in a scale appropriate to own situation on a continued basis.
4.0 Conclusion
Adoption of innovation as a process composed of learning, deciding and acting over a
period of time. The adoption of a specific practice is not the result of a single decision to
act but series of actions and thought decisions.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have learnt that adoption of specific practices is not the result of a single
decision to act but series of actions and thought decisions.
What are the steps involved in the adoption process?
Leeuwis, Cees (2003) Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking
Agricultural Extension, CTA, 412p
35
Unit 4
Diffusion of Innovation
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Diffusion of Innovation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Diffusion and adoption are closely interrelated even though they are conceptually
distinct. Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what
rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
 Explain the concept of diffusion process of innovation
 Discuss the major stages involved in diffusion of innovation
36
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Concept of Diffusion of Innovation
Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas
and technology spread through cultures. Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology,
popularized the theory in his 1962 book Diffusion of Innovations. He said diffusion is the process
by which an in novation is communicated through certain channels over time among the
members of a social system. The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and
span multiple disciplines.
Diffusion of innovations refers to the spread of those innovations through a population, and is
simply the result of a host of individual adoption decisions. According to Rogers 1962 the
diffusion process can be explained as “the spread of a new idea from its source of invention or
creation to its ultimate use of adopters”. The process by which an innovation spreads within a
social system is called “diffusion”. An innovation diffuses within a social system through its
“adoption” by individual and groups.
An innovation does not diffuse at the same rate. An innovation which represents only a slight
modification of an existing idea or practice will obviously diffuse at a faster rate than the one
which represents a significant departure from it. The factors that influence diffusion of
innovation are a based on the perception of the farmers rather than being inherent qualities of an
innovation Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of objects
around oneself and of events taking place. Some of the important traits of an innovation which
influence the rate of adoption are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trial ability and
observe ability. These factors shall be discussed in details in unit 7.
37
Diffusion process is the spread of the message about innovation from its source of invention to
the ultimate users in a social system, which may be a village, Ward, Local Government Area or a
State. A few highly innovative members of a social system first adopt it. They in turn influence a
larger number of individuals. The majority take a long time before accepting the new idea or
practice. It is the first few adopters of an innovation who influence the other members of a
community to adopt the innovation as they interact with them. This is referred to as the
“interaction effect.” After the innovation is adopted by a few farmers, they influence a few others
to adopt it who, in turn, offers a new stimulus to the remaining ones.
3.2 Stages of Diffusion of Innovation
Diffusion studies have demonstrated a mathematically consistent sigmoid pattern (the S-
shaped curve) of adoption for consequential innovations over time when the decisions to
adopt are voluntary (Figure 4.1). A predictable pattern over time has been observed when
an innovation spreads as the now familiar S-shaped cumulative adoption curve.
According to Dearing (2008) diffusion occurs through a combination of:
 The need for individuals to reduce personal uncertainty when presented with new
information,
 The need for individuals to respond to their perceptions of what specific credible
others are thinking and doing, and
 General felt social pressure to do as others have done. Uncertainty in response to
an innovation typically leads to a search for information and, if the innovation is
perceived to be important in terms of having consequences for a potential adopter,
a search for evaluative judgments of trusted and respected others.

38
The diffusion process of an innovation thus involves four major stages.
3.2.1 Innovators
At the first stage, only a few innovative farmers try out and adopt the innovation after
its introduction in a village. This group of farmers is often referred to as “innovators”
who have been described to be prosperous and venturesome enough to be able to take
the risk of trying out an innovative idea or practice.
3.2.2 Early Adopters
In the second stage, a larger group of farmers, but still a small majority in the village is
influenced by the innovators to adopt the recommended practice, referred to in the
literature as “early adopters”, the group of farmers is not too different from the average
farmer, of a village although they are often respected for their farming ability and
successful and “discrete” use of new ideas and practices. Because of their respectability
in the village, the early adopters serve as the role model for other farmers who seek
opinion and advice on farming matters from them.
39
Figure 4.1: S-shaped Cumulative Adoption Curve
3.2.3 Late Adopters
It is primarily this influence of early adopters which makes the large majority of the
farmers in a village, called the “late adopters”, to adopt the innovation in the third stage
of the diffusion process. This is when the diffusion curve takes a rather steep upward
climb. In the final stage, the diffusion process slows down and the diffusion curve
gently levels off as the proportionately few remaining farmers of the village gradually
adopt the innovation.
3.2.4 Laggards
The small group of farmers who take the longest time to adopt an innovation is called
the “laggards”.
40
4.0 Conclusion
The diffusion process is a social phenomenon by which innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among members of a social system. There is always
a variation among the members of a social system in the way they respond to an
innovative idea or practice.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have discussed the various diffusion process of innovation as a social
phenomena and the variation that occurs.
Describe the diffusion of innovation process and the various stages involved.
Dearing, James W. (2008) Evolution of Diffusion and Dissemination Theory,
J Public Health Management Practice, 14(2), 99–108, Copyright, Wolters
Kluwer Health/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
41
MANAGE (2007) Course 102 Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural
Innovations Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management
(PGDAEM), Published by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management,
Rajendranagar, India,
http://www.manage.gov.in/pgdaem/studymaterial/manage102/manage%20book%201
02-block1.pdf
Rogers, Everett (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press
42
Unit 5
Innovation Models
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Innovation Models
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Innovation Diffusion Models
Diffusion is the “process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over a period of time among the members of a social system”. An innovation is
“an idea, practice, or object that is perceived to be new by an individual or other unit of
adoption”. “Communication is a process in which participants create and share
information with one another to reach a mutual understanding” (Rogers, 1995). Models
are applied in all situations that require analysis and abstraction from complex
phenomena. The objective of such analysis is often to document, understand and enable
us to be in a position to influence or alter situations and predict reacts or impact of such

43
attempts to influence or alter reality. A model therefore is any form of abstraction from
reality, aimed at enabling us to understand and deal with particular aspects of reality that
is of interest.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
I. Explain the different types of models
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Innovation Models
The Linear Model of Innovation is an early model of innovation that suggests technical change
happens in a linear fashion from invention to innovation to diffusion. It was basically assumed
that innovations originate from scientist, are transferred by communication workers and other
intermediaries, and are applied by agricultural practitioners. This model of thinking is called 'the
linear model of innovation (Kline and Rosenberg, 1986). The model is further characterised by a
clear task division between various actors. Some actors are supposed to specialize in the
generation of innovations; others concentrate on their transfer, while the farmers' role is merely
to apply the innovations as shown in Figure5.1.
Fundamental Education Agricultural

science Applied science and extension practice
44
Generation of innovation Transfer of innovations Application of
innovations
Figure 5.1 The Linear Model of Innovation
However, when scholars started to analyse in retrospect how successful innovations came
into practice, hey soon discovered all sorts of deviations from the linear model. It appeared,
for example that researchers often got their innovative ideas from practitioners, that farmers
made significant adaptations to the packages developed by scientist. Many innovations
therefore occurred without involvement of scientists, and the function of communication
workers was not so much to transfer knowledge and information from scientists to farmers,
but rather the other way round or even to a role only in knowledge exchange among
farmers (Leeuwis, 2003). In view of such findings, it was concluded that innovation
requires close co-operation in a net-work of actors, who all contribute to the 'generation'
and 'transfer' of knowledge, and to its 'integration' into viable innovations. In adoption and
diffusion research, the active and creative role of farmers in innovation process has been
overlooked. Very few, if any, studies have focused on the adoption of farmers' ideas by
researchers and change agents. Apparently, studying adoption 'the other way round' was not
considered worthwhile, which is indicative of the limited value attached to farmers'
knowledge and ideas by 'adoption and diffusion of innovations' researchers.
Other Models of Innovation are:
1. General vs. Domain specific
2. Conceptual vs. Mathematical

45
3. Focus on innovation vs. adopters
4. Organizational vs. Individual
5. Process vs. Outcome
6. Proximity vs. Network
7. Rate-oriented vs. Threshold
5.2 Diffusion of innovation model.
Source: Rogers (1995)
4.0 Conclusion
Innovation model is form of abstraction from reality, aimed at assisting us to understand and
deal with particular aspects of authenticity that is of concern. Such analysis is often to
46
document, understand and enable us to be in a position to influence or alter situations and
forecast reacts or impact of such attempts to influence or alter reality
5.0 Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about the model of innovation which involves Generation of
innovation, transfer of innovations and application of innovations, Diffusion model has three
dimensional phases namely; Antecedents, Process and Consequences.
Explain the concept of model of diffusion
Kline, S.J. & N. Rosenberg (1986), “An overview of innovation.” In R. Landau & N.
Rosenberg (eds.), The Positive Sum Strategy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, pp. 275–305
Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press.
47
Unit 6
The innovation Decision Process
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Innovation Decision Process
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The innovation-decision process is crucial to an innovations being adopted or rejected by
an individual, a collective or an authority decision. In this unit we shall identify these
stages and their importance in the adoption of an innovation.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Explain the innovation-decision making
 Discuss the stages of the innovation-decision process

48
3.0 Main Body
3.1 The innovation Decision Process
The Innovation - Decision process is the process through an individual (or other
decision making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation, to forming an
attitude toward the innovation to a decision to adopt or reject and to implementation of
the new idea. This process should be distinguished from the diffusion process by which
new ideas are communicated to the members of a social system. The major difference
between the two processes is that diffusion occurs among the units in a social system,
whereas innovation-decision making takes place within the mind of an individual.
The innovation-decision is a special type of decision-making that involves an individual
choosing from a new alternative over those previously in existence. This process is
similar to the Adoption process (AIETA) that we studied in unit 3. It consists of a series
of actions and choices over time through which an individual or an organization evaluates
a new idea and decides whether or not to incorporate the new idea into the ongoing
system. Innovation-decision is a process that occurs over time and is conceptualized to
have five stages. Rogers came up with a model of Innovation-Decision Process which
consists of five stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation and
confirmation (KPDIC).
3.2 Stages of the Innovation-Decision Process
a) Knowledge involves exposure to its existence and understanding of its functions. An
early knower generally is more highly educated, has higher social status, is more open to
49
both mass media and interpersonal channels of communication, and has more contact
with change agents. Mass media channels are relatively more important at the knowledge
stage, whereas interpersonal channels are relatively more important at the persuasion
stage.
b) Persuasion entails the forming of a favourable attitude to it. Innovation decisions may be
optional (where the person or organisation has a real opportunity to adopt or reject the
idea), collective (where a decision is reached by consensus among the members of a
system), or authority-based (where a decision is imposed by another person or
organisation which possesses requisite power, status or technical expertise).
c) Decision stage is a commitment to adoption of the innovation. The individual engages in
activities which lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. Actually the entire
innovation-decision process is a series of choices at each function. For instance, in the
knowledge function the individual must decide which innovation messages to attend to
and which ones to disregard. In the persuasion function he must decide to seek certain
messages and to ignore others. But in the decision function the type of choice is different
from those previous; it is a decision between two alternatives, to adopt or reject a new
idea. This decision involves an immediate consideration of whether or not to try the
innovation, if it is trial able. Most farmers will not adopt an innovation without trying it
first on a probationary basis to determine its utility in their own situation. The small-scale
trial is often part of the decision to adopt, and is important as a means to decrease the
perceived risk of the innovation for the adopter. In some cases innovation cannot be
divided for trial, and so it must be adopted or rejected. Innovations, which can be divided
50
for trial use, are generally adopted more rapidly. Most farmers who try an innovation then
move to an adoption decision, if the innovation has a certain degree of relative advantage.
d) Implementation occurs when an individual or other decision making unit puts an
innovation into use. At this stage the individual is generally concerned with where to get
the innovation, how to use it and what operational problems will be faced and how these
could be solved. Implementation may involve changes in management of the enterprise
and/or modification in the innovation, to suit more closely to the specific needs of the
particular person who adopts it. Re-invention often occurs at the implementation stage.
Re-invention is defined as the degree to which an innovation is changed or modified by a
user in the process of its adoption and implementation. Re-invention often is beneficial to
the adopters of an innovation. Flexibility in the process of adopting an innovation may
reduce mistakes and encourage customization of the innovation to fit it more
appropriately to local situations or changing conditions. As a result of re-invention, an
innovation may be more appropriate in matching an adopter’s preexisting problems and
more responsive to new problems that arise during the innovation-decision process.
Recognition of the existence of re-invention brings into focus a different view of
adoption behaviour – instead of simply accepting or rejecting an innovation as a fixed
idea, potential adopters on many occasions are active participants in the adoption and
diffusion process, to give their own unique meaning to the innovation as it is applied in
their local context. Adoption of an innovation is thus a process of social construction.
e) Confirmation is the stage of reinforcement based on positive outcomes from the
innovation. Most of the researchers indicated that a decision to adopt or reject is not the
terminal stage in the innovation-decision process. Human mind is in a dynamic state and
51
an individual constantly evaluates the situation. If the individual perceives that the
innovation is consistently giving satisfactory or unsatisfactory results the person may
continue to adopt or reject the innovation as the case may be. At the confirmation
function the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision he has made, but
he may reverse his previous decision if exposed to conflicting message about the
innovation. The confirmation stage continues for an indefinite period in time.
4.0 Conclusion
Differences exist between the diffusion process and innovation-decision making. The
innovation-decision process involves stages and is affected by several factors for a given
individual.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have identified the differences between diffusion and innovation-decision
processes. We have also examined stages involved in the innovation-decision making
process.
i) Differentiate between the diffusion process and innovation-decision making
ii) List the stages of innovation-decision making process and discuss.
52
Leeuwis Cees (2003) Communication for Rural Innovation: Rethinking
Agricultural Extension, CTA, 412p
MANAGE (2007) Course 102 Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural
Innovations Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management
(PGDAEM), Published by National Institute of Agricultural Extension
Management, Rajendranagar, India,
http://www.manage.gov.in/pgdaem/studymaterial/manage102/manage%20book%
20102-block1.pdf
53
Unit 7
Characteristics of Innovation
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Characteristics of Innovation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Further Readings
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1.0 Introduction
A number of studies have analyzed the relationship between characteristics of
innovation in production technology and its rate of adoption. In general, the
characteristics listed n this unit are considered as important to innovation.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
 Identify the characteristics of innovation
 Discuss the characteristics of innovation
54
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Identification/Listing of Characterizing of Adoption
On Characteristics Rogers (1995) identified in each category of adopters are as follows: the Early
Adopters: (1) integrated part of the local social system, (2) greatest degree of opinion leadership
in most systems, (3) serve as role model for other members or society, (4) respected by peers,
and (5) successful; the Early Majority: (1) interact frequently with peers, (2) seldom hold
positions of opinion leadership, (3) one-third of the members of a system, making the early
majority the largest category, (4) deliberate before adopting a new idea; the Late Majority: (1)
one-third of the members of a system, (2) pressure from peers, (3) economic necessity, (4)
skeptical, and (5) cautious; the Laggards: (1) possess no opinion leadership, (2) isolates, (3) point
of reference in the past, (4) suspicious of innovations, (5) innovation-decision process is lengthy,
and (6) resources are limited
3.2 Characteristics of Innovation
For any innovation to be adopted, it must have one or more of the following characteristics or
attributes that is perceived by the potential adopter for it to be adopted. Rogers identifies seven
critical attributes that greatly influence the rate of adoption:
i) Relative Advantage – The innovation must be perceived to be better than the status quo.
This will result in expanding the number or geographic reach of users for an existing
application. There must also be improved application performance and saving cost to the
application supplier or its users.
55
Many of the performance and cost advantages of an innovation are justified as problem
avoidance. Interestingly, Rogers points out that preventative innovations that are justified
by avoiding a problem (e.g., not contracting AIDS by adopting “safe sex”) are particularly
slow in adoption because individuals have difficulties in perceiving the relative advantage.
ii) Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the
existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. This is an area where
Rogers shows how strongly the adoption process is governed by individuals operating
within a social structure. First, the new thing must be technically compatible. Second, the
new product or service needs to be organizationally compatible. The culture change
required will create resistance to the innovation.
iii) Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand
and use. The early adopters were comfortable with their understanding of the new
technologies. Today, as described above, the relative advantage of many new technologies
is improved performance or reduced cost. Interestingly, the actual complexity of the new
devices is much higher.
iv) Trialability is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with a limited basis.
There is good news in this area. Many performance techniques can be applied to a very
narrow subset of users, locations, applications, and even portions of an application or
content. The effect can be monitored to support decisions for gradual expansion of the
innovation.
56
v) Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. As
we move to innovations with more subtle performance and cost improvements, measuring
the change may be difficult. The more general benefits statements offered by the vendor
earlier in the process are not sufficient at this stage. The longer it takes to make the case for
an innovation, the longer it will take to be adopted even in an enterprise that is already
trying it.
vi) Divisibility-This is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with small
units. Purchase of tractors or harvesters and use is a onetime major investment. Part of it
cannot be purchased and tried in phases though they could be hired.
vii) Accessibility-This is the degree to which an innovation is readily available with minimum
effort. There is little need for change agent to push farming inputs that farmers either
cannot afford or for which infrastructure does not exist for its distribution.
4.0 Conclusion
One likely problem with measuring the five attributes of innovations is that they may not in
all cases be the seven most important perceived characteristics for a particular set of
respondents. The solution is to elicit the main attributes of innovations from the respondents
as a prior step to measuring these attributes as predictors of the rate of adoption.
57
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have studied the characteristics of innovation and how they influence the
adoption process.
i) Identify the characteristics of adoption.
ii) Enumerate the characteristics of innovations that can enhance adoption.
Ban, A. W. Van den and Hawkins, H. S. Hawkins (1996) Agricultural Extension, Blackwell
Science, Second edition, 294p
58
Unit 8
Factors Determining the Rates of Adoption
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors Determining the Rates of Adoption
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
An important concern in the adoption and diffusion research tradition was to explain
and predict the eventual rate of adoption of particular innovation. Rogers (1983) has
summarized conclusions in connection with the model that shall be discussed in this
unit.
59
2.0 Objectives
 Explain the concept of adoption rates
 Discuss the factors determining the adoption rates
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Adoption Rates
The rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed with which members of a social
system adopt an innovation. It is usually measured by the length of time required for
a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation. It also
means the number of members of a society who start using a new technology or
innovation during a specific period of time. The rate of adoption is a relative
measure, meaning that the rate of one group is compared to the adoption of another,
often of the entire society.
The rates of adoption for innovations are determined by an individual’s adopter
category. It is generally measured as the number of individuals who adopt a new idea
in a specified period, such as each year. So the rate of adoption is a numerical
indicator of the steepness of the adoption curve for an innovation. The more persons
are involved in making an innovation-decision, the slower the rate of adoption. If
persons perceive situations as real, they are real in their consequences. The variables
determining adoption rate according to Rogers (1995) are as follows:
60
3.2 Variables Determining the Rate of Adoption
A. Perceived characteristics of innovations accounts for 49% to 87% of variance in the rate
of adoption. These five attributes have been discussed in details in the previous unit.
1. Relative advantage
a. The degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it
supersedes.
i) Cost
ii) Status aspect – evidence based practices
iii) Over-adoption – the adoption of an innovation by an individual when experts
feel that s/he should reject it.
b. Generalization– The relative advantage of an innovation, as perceived by
members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of adoption.
c. Preventive Interventions
i) A preventive innovation has a particularly slow rate of adoption because
individuals have difficulties in perceiving its relative advantage. Relative
advantage of a preventive innovation is highly uncertain
d. Communication campaign.
i) Intends to generation specific effects on the part of a relatively large number
of individuals within a specified period of time and through an organized set
of communication activities.
61
i. Formative research – on going tested on intended audience to make sure the
campaign in order to improve effectiveness.
2. Compatibility
a) The degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the exiting
values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters
b) Compatibility with values and beliefs
c) An innovation may be compatible with deeply embedded cultural values but also
with previously adopted ideas
d) The more compatible an innovation with norms and values, the less change in
behavior it represents
e) Innovation negativism – the degree to which an innovation’s failure conditions a
potential adopter to reject future innovations.
f) Compatibility with needs
g) Change agents seek to determine the needs of their clients, and then to
recommend innovations that fulfill these needs. Empathy is required.
h) Compatibility with rate of adoption
i) Technology cluster
ii) Naming an innovation.
 Selection of a name is a delicate and important matter. Words are the thought-
units that structure perceptions.
iii) Positioning an innovation –
62
i. An individual will behave toward a new idea in a similar manner to the way the
individual behaves toward other ideas that are perceived as similar to the new
idea.
ii. Positioning research can help identify the ideal niche for an innovation
relative to perceptions of existing ideas in the same category.
iv) Indigenous knowledge systems
iii. Changes sometimes forget that almost every innovation is evaluated by clients in
terms of their prior experience with something similar.
3. Complexity
i) The degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand and use.
ii) The more complex an innovation is perceived, the slower the rate of
adoption
4. Trialability
i) The degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis
ii) The more trialable, the greater the rate of adoption
5. Observability
i) The degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others
ii) Observability is positively related to the rate of adoption
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B. Type of Innovation-Decision- refers to the number of people involved in the adoption
process:
a) Optional innovation decisions taken by individuals independent of others,
independent of the decisions of other members of the system.
b) Collective innovation decision require consensus among many people in a system
or organization, allegedly causing adoption to be slower. The choices could be to
adopt or reject an innovation. All units of the system must conform to the
system’s decision once it is made.
c) Authority innovation decisions involve only a few relatively powerful individuals
who possess power, status, or technical expertise can decide on adoption or
rejection by a collective decision. Collective and authority decision types are
much more common than optional. Authority decisions have the fastest rate of
adoption, but can be circumvented during their implementation.
d) Contingent innovation decision type is the fourth type in which choices to adopt
or reject can be made only after a prior innovation – decision. For example, an
individual member of a social system may be free to adopt or not to adopt a new
idea only after his/her system’s innovation decision
C. Communication Channels-Mass media channels are relatively more important at the
knowledge stage, and interpersonal channels are relatively more important at the
persuasion stage in the innovation-decision process. The formation and change of
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strongly held attitudes, however, is best accomplished by interpersonal channels. For
successful technology transfer programme, the extension agents have to plan their
communication strategy based on the actual information needs of the client system.
Communication Channel diffusing the innovation at various states in the innovation-
decision process are:
a) Mass media- Mass media channels are all those means of transmitting messages that
involve a mass medium, such as radio, television, newspapers, and so on, which
enables a source to reach an audience of many.
b) Interpersonal-Interpersonal channels involve a face-to-face exchange between
two or more individuals. Localite sources of information belong to the same social system
as that of the receivers. Their knowledge about objects and events are restricted, generally
confined to the local system. Examples are relatives, friends, neighbours etc. On the other
hand, cosmopolite sources of information are from outside the social system of the
receivers. Their knowledge about objects and events are wider, and as such, they can bring
new ideas to the receivers. Examples are extension agents (personal cosmopolite), mass
media (impersonal cosmopolite) etc.
c) Hybrid Media: the Internet- New media have emerged that tend to combine the
functional properties of mass media and of interpersonal communication. This is because
they can potentially reach large numbers of people in many locations, but at the same time
support a level of interactivity that is higher than with conventional mass media. Many of
the hybrid media are based on technology and often referred to as information and
communication technology (ICT). Examples are CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only
Memory, electronic conferencing, internet and other social networks.
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D. Nature of the Social System-is connected largely with social influence and societal
characteristics that shape diffusion:
Knowledge and perception are subject to social influences and related to social interests.
a) Social Norms- people’s social background, socio-cultural values and beliefs
b) Pattern of network interconnectedness in social networks- political contexts and
group interest, individual; interest in specific interaction settings
E. Extent of Change agent’s promotion efforts
Greatest response to change agent effort occurs when opinion leaders adopt, which usually
occurs somewhere between 3 and 16 % adoption in most systems. The effort of the change
agent in effecting adoption rate will be discussed in more details in unit 10.
4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, individuals who first adopt an innovation require a shorter adoption period
(adoption process) than late adopters. Attributes of an innovation that affect the rate of
adoption include the advantage created by adopting the innovation, the ease at which the
innovation can be adopted into daily life, the ability of other members of society to see
those who have already adopted the innovation and the expense associated with trying the
innovation.
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5.0 Summary
We have been able to define what adoption rate is. In this unit we have also indentified
the factors that determine the rate of adoption.
i. Define adoption rate.
ii. Enumerate the factors determining adoption rate and explain
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Unit 9
Adopter Categories
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Adoption Categories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1.0 Introduction
Innovations are not adopted by everyone at the same time. Specific innovations are used
more quickly by some and taken up later by others, while others in the society never adopt
them. Adoption research suggested that there was a pattern in the rate at which people
adopted innovations. It is inferred that some adopt early, while others will adopt late. An
adoption index was usually calculated by asking people if they have adopted any of the 10
to 15 innovations recommended by the local extension service. Individuals would receive a
point for each adopted. On the basis of their scores, adoption researchers classified people
into five different categories.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you will be able to:
 Discuss different types of people in every community based on their reaction to
changes
 Differentiate between concepts pertaining to adoption among people
 Explain the characteristics of different adopters categories
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Concepts Pertaining to Adoption among People
It is necessary to clarify certain concepts pertaining to adoption among people. These include
adoption rate, speed of adoption and innovativeness.
3.1.1 Adoption Rate The rate of adoption is the third area in the diffusion of innovations that
involves time (Rogers, 1995). Adoption of innovations is slow and gradual at the start. This is
evident with media literacy. Many teachers and administrators have been reluctant to adopt
media literacy. However, there is a change in the climate and more and more schools are
accepting media literacy as an integral part of the educational process. The adoption of media
literacy is growing rapidly, which is consistent with the rate of adoption theory. The rapid
growth will taper off eventually and decline slightly. The cumulative frequency distribution
over time will resemble a s-shaped curve (Rogers, 1995). As more individuals perceive media
literacy training to possess greater relative advantage and compatibility, and the like, the rate of
adoption will likely increase
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3.1.2 Speed of Adoption. The speed is usually measured by the length of time required for a
certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation. It also means the
number of members of a society who start using a new technology or innovation during a
specific period of time. The rate of adoption is a relative measure, meaning that the rate of one
group is compared to the adoption of another, often of the entire society
3.1.3 Innovativeness. This is the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is
relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of a social system
3.2 Adoption Categories
There are five adopter categories, or classifications of the members of a social system on
the basis on their innovativeness as shown in Figure 8.1. The categories are as follows:
a) Innovators are the first 2.5% of the individuals in a social system to adopt an
innovation. This interest in new ideas leads them out of a local circle of peer
networks and into more cosmopolite social relationships. Communication patterns
and friendships among a clique of innovators are common, even though the
geographical distance between the innovators may be considerable. Being an
innovator has several prerequisites. Control of substantial financial resources is
helpful to absorb the possible loss from an unprofitable innovation. The ability to
understand and apply complex technical knowledge is also needed. The innovator
must be able to cope with a high degree of uncertainty about an innovation at the
time of adoption. Though an innovator may not be respected by the other members of
a social system, the innovator plays an important role in the diffusion process.
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b) Early adopters are the next 13.5% of the individuals in a system to adopt an
innovation. Early adopters are a more integrated part of the local system than are
innovators. Whereas innovators have urban contacts (cosmopolitanism), early
adopters live within the local communities. This adopter category, more than any
other, has the greatest degree of opinion leadership in most systems. Potential
adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about the innovation. This
adopter category is generally sought by change agents as a local missionary for
speeding the diffusion process. Because early adopters are not too far ahead of the
average individual in innovativeness, they serve as a role-model for many other
members of a social system. The early adopter is respected by his or her peers and is
the embodiment of successful, discrete use of new ideas. The early adopter knows
that to continue to earn this esteem of colleagues and to maintain a central position in
the communication networks of the system; he or she must make judicious
innovation-decisions. The early adopter decreases uncertainty about a new idea by
adopting it, and then conveying a subjective evaluation of the innovation to near-
peers through interpersonal networks.
c) Early majority is the next 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.
The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a system. The
early majority interacts frequently with their peers, but seldom holds positions of
opinion leadership in a system. The early majority's unique position between the very
early and the relatively late to adopt, makes them an important link in the diffusion
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process. They provide interconnectedness in the system's interpersonal networks. The
early majority are one of the two most numerous adopter categories, making up one
third of the members of a system. The early majority may deliberate for some time
before completely adopting a new idea. They follow with deliberate willingness in
adopting innovations, but seldom lead.
d) Late majority is the next 34% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.
The late majority adopt new ideas just after the average member of a system. Like
the early majority, the late majority make up one-third of the members of a system.
Adoption may be the result of increasing network pressures from peers. Innovations
are approached with a skeptical and cautious air, and the late majority do not adopt
until most others in their system have done so. The weight of system norms must
definitely favor an innovation before the late majority is convinced. The pressure of
peers is necessary to motivate adoption. Their relatively scarce resources mean that
most of the uncertainty about a new idea must be removed before the late majority
feel that it is safe to adopt. The late majority are not oriented to their social system.
They are isolates, traditional bound and do not encourage any adoption. Their
participation in community social systems or organizations and activities is very low.
They are low in their education, change agent contact and media exposures.
e) Laggards are the last 16% of the individuals in a system to adopt an innovation.
They possess almost no opinion leadership. Laggards are the most traditional minded
of all adopter categories; many are near isolated in the social networks of their
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system. Similar to the late majority, the laggards' participation in community social
systems or organizations and activities is very low. They are low in their education,
change agent contact and media exposures. The point of reference for the laggard is
the past. Decisions are often made in terms of what has been done previously.
Laggards tend to be suspicious of innovations and change agents. Resistance to
innovations on the part of laggards may be entirely rational from the laggard's
viewpoint, as their resources are limited and they must be certain that a new idea will
not fail before they can adopt. They are the last to adopt or may never adopt the
innovation.
Figure 8.1: Categorization of Adopters of Innovation
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4.0 Conclusion
The willingness to adopt an innovation varies among people in a given society. Certain
social characteristics have been observed to influence why some individuals adopt
innovation early, while others are delay.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, the adopters of innovation have been classified. Under each category, we
have identified the characteristics and how they enhance adoption of innovation.
Describe the categories of adopters of innovators and highlight their characteristics.
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Unit 10
Opinion Leadership
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Opinion Leaders
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Key aspect of understanding how the social system affects diffusion is that social systems
have prestige hierarchies. This is because some persons/organizations are more influential
than others. The social comparison process is affected most by opinion leaders. To
effectively gain adoption of a new technology, the change agent should know how to
identify opinion leaders in the social system. In this unit we shall discuss the role of the
opinion leader in adoption of innovation.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, we shall be able to:
 Explain the concept of opinion leaders
 Characteristics of opinion leaders
 Role of opinion leaders in adoption of innovation
 Measure the opinion leadership of individuals.
3.0 Main Body
3.1 Opinion Leaders
Opinion leaders are informal leaders that are able to influence others. This informal
leadership is not a function of the individual’s final position or status in the system, but is
earned and maintained by individuals’ technical competence, social accessibility, and
conformity to the system’s norms. By their close conformity to the system’s norms,
opinion leaders serve as an opt model for the innovation behaviours of their followers.
Opinion leaders have more exposure to external communication, higher social status
greater mass media exposure, greater change agent contact, greater social participation,
more urban contact and innovativeness. Opinion leaders are individuals who receive
information from the media and pass it along to their peers. They are individuals who are
knowledgeable about various topics and whose advice is taken seriously by others. The
opinion leader is the agent who is an active media user and who interprets the meaning of
media messages or content for lower-end media users.
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Typically the opinion leader is held in high esteem by those who accept his or her opinions.
Opinion leadership tends to be subject specific, that is, a person that is an opinion leader in
one field may be a follower in another field. An example of an opinion leader in the field
of computer technology might be a neighborhood computer service technician. The
technician has access to far more information on this topic than the average consumer and
has the requisite background to understand the information, though the same person might
be a follower at another field (for example sports) and ask others for advice. Opinion
leaders are seen to have more influence than the media for a number of reasons. Opinion
leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being
tricked into thinking a certain way about something from someone they know. However,
the media can be seen as forcing a concept on the public and therefore less influential.
While the media can act as a reinforcing agent, opinion leaders have a more changing or
determining role in an individual’s opinion or action.
Opinion leaders can be found in all types of groups: occupational, social, community, and
others. They often tend to be very socially active and highly interconnected within the
community. Effective opinion leaders tend to be slightly higher than the people they
influence in terms of status and educational attainment, but not so high as to be in a
different social class. This way, the leaders are still a part of their audience’s reference
group. It is important to remember, that social power, educational attainment, and public
are not absolute requirements for opinion leadership. Despite the existence of opinion
leaders, it is not always easy to distinguish them from the other members of groups. This is
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because opinion leadership is not a trait, but rather a role taken by some individuals under
certain circumstances. In other words, anyone can be an opinion leader at any given time.
Such leadership changes from time to time and from issue to issue. Opinion leaders also
play important roles in movements of social change and can bring legitimacy to a social
movement. This is because they tend to be similar to those they influence based on
personality, interests, demographics, or socio-economic factors. These leaders tend to
influence others to change their attitudes and behaviors.
3.2 Characteristics of Opinion Leaders
1. External Communication-Opinion leaders have greater exposure to mass media than their
followers
2. Accessibility-They are socially accessible and have greater social participation than their
followers.
3. Socio-economic Status-They usually have higher socio-economic status than their
followers
4. Innovativeness-If opinion leaders are to accepted by their peers, as competent and trust
worthy, they should adopt new ideas before their followers. Hence they are more
innovative than their followers.
5. They conform to system norms-Opinion leaders conform to the societal norm of their
system.
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3.3 Measurement of Opinion Leadership
There are four approaches to identifying opinion leaders: sociometric methods, key-informant
methods, self-designating methods, and observation .
1. Socio-metric method: The word sociometry comes from the Latin “socius,” meaning social
and the Latin “metrum,” meaning measure. As these roots imply, sociometry is a way of
measuring the degree of relatedness among people. Measurement of relatedness can be useful
not only in the assessment of behavior within groups, but also for interventions to bring
about positive change and for determining the extent of change. For a work group,
sociometry can be a powerful tool for reducing conflict and improving communication
because it allows the group to see itself objectively and to analyze its own dynamics. It is
also a powerful tool for assessing dynamics and development in groups devoted to therapy
or training.sociometry is a methodology for tracking the energy vectors of interpersonal
relationships in a group. It shows the patterns of how individuals associate with each other
when acting as a group toward a specified end or goal (Criswell in Moreno, 1960, p. 140).
Moreno himself defined sociometry as “the mathematical study of psychological properties
of populations, the experimental technique of and the results obtained by application of
quantitative methods” (Moreno, 1953, pp. 15-16).
Sociometry is based on the fact that people make choices in interpersonal relationships.
Whenever people gather, they make choices--where to sit or stand; choices about who is
perceived as friendly and who not, who is central to the group, who is rejected, who is
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isolated. As Moreno says, “Choices are fundamental facts in all ongoing human relations,
choices of people and choices of things. It is immaterial whether the motivations are known
to the chooser or not; it is immaterial whether [the choices] are inarticulate or highly
expressive, whether rational or irrational. They do not require any special justification as
long as they are spontaneous and true to the self of the chooser. They are facts of the first
existential order.” (Moreno, 1953, p. 720). Sociometric: As noted by Rogers, opinion
leaders typically are located at the center of communication networks. Sociometry is the
mapping, usually using sophisticated network analysis software, of contacts among a
potential list of opinion leaders (usually those identified by the reputational approach). This
mapping of contacts helps the change agent locate persons who are at the center of
communications about the issue area. A question asked of reputational leaders to map
contacts might be, "How often do you contact [person X] about school-related issues in this
community?"
One interesting use of sociometric analysis is the identification of cliques of leaders.
Personal histories or acquired characteristics such as skin color or gender can underlie the
formation of leadership cliques in a community. Sociometric maps can help identify
"natural" boundaries among cliques of opinion leaders. Sociometric maps also can help
identify interstitial persons, who link leadership cliques. Interstitial persons might be
somewhat marginal to their respective cliques, but because they are connected with other
cliques, they can provide the change agent with access to cliques that might otherwise be
difficult for the change agent to gain rapport. Interstitial persons might have a "weak" tie to
one another (i.e., they might not contact one another very often). But the strength" of this
weak tie is it gives the change agent access to different cliques of opinion leaders.
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The typical process for a sociometric intervention in an organization follows these basic
steps: (1) Identify the group to be studied, (2) Develop the criterion, (3) Establish rapport /
warm-up, (4) Gather sociometric data, (5) Analyze and interpret data, (6) Feed back data, either:
(a) to individuals, prior to group meeting, or (b) in a group setting, (7) Develop and implement
action plans, (8) Post-test (optional).
2. Key informant rating. The key informant method is based on obtaining information,
over time, from a community resident who is in a position to know the community well.
The person or persons selected to be key informants must therefore have a broad
knowledge of the community, its services, and its people. It is an excellent way to recover
information about past events or ways of life that are no longer observable
The process involves:
1) Collect qualitative, in-depth information from a wide range of people
2) Collect information about a pressing issue or problem in the community
3) Understand beliefs and motivations
4) Understand sensitive topics and
5) Get the story behind a participant’s experiences
3. Self-Designating: Here, the change agent asks selected individuals to identify themselves
as being influential on school-related issues. The approach has the advantage of getting
input on influence from community members, and therefore is more accurate than the
positional approach. It requires a bit more expense in that the change agent typically will
81
travel to the community to interview persons for the needed information. A potential
pitfall of the self-designating approach is that persons might over- or under-estimate their
influence on others. Self-designated techniques are achieved by someone who has
perceived self-efficacy. This allows people's beliefs about their capabilities to produce
designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their
lives. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes. They
include cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes. A strong sense of
efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-being in many ways. People
with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be
mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. Such an efficacious outlook fosters intrinsic
interest and deep engrossment in activities. They set themselves challenging goals and
maintain strong commitment to them. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face
of failure. They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks. They
attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are
acquirable. They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise
control over them. Such an efficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments,
reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to depression.
4. Through Observation: There is no substitute for observing social action within the
community. Some opinion leaders are not located at the center of a communication
network, but prefer by their personality to be located a bit outside the everyday
communication pattern. Also, reputation can be misleading. If the sociometric analysis is
conducted using reputational leaders, an important leader might have been left off of the
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map altogether. Observation, because of costs related to lodging, food, and travel, is the
most expensive of the techniques described here, but it is also the most accurate
4.0 Conclusion
Throughout the diffusion process there is evidence that not all individuals exert an equal amount
of influence over all individuals. There are Opinion Leaders, who are influential in spreading
either positive or negative information about an innovation.
5.0 Summary
We have defined and described characteristics of opinion leaders. The defining
characteristic of opinion leaders is that they are well respected in their social system.
 Who are Opinion Leaders?
 Discuss their characteristics and role in the diffusion and adoption of innovation
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MANAGE (2007) Course 102 Communication and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations
Post Graduate Diploma in Agricultural Extension Management (PGDAEM), Published
by National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management, Rajendranagar, India,
Moreno, Jacob Levy (1934, Revised edition 1953). Who Shall Survive? Beacon, NY:
Beacon House.
Moreno, Jacob Levy (1960). The Sociometry Reader. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.
http://www.manage.gov.in/pgdaem/studymaterial/manage102/manage%20book%20102-
block1.pdf
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Unit 11
Change Agents
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Change Agent
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In the social systems there are change agents that play important roles in the innovation
process. The change agents are known to positively influence innovation decisions, by
mediating between the change agency and the relevant social system. Change agents are
individuals who influence change in attitudes, knowledge and skills of their clientele in
direction that will ensure their adoption of innovations. They are in position to develop the
need for change and to help clientele to translate the intent into action.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
 Define change agents
 Function of change agents in adoption of innovation
 Characteristics and reason for the change agents
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Change Agents
The social system includes several players such as the change agent. A change agent is an
individual who influences clients’ innovation decisions in a desired direction. As members of
the social system who have early knowledge of an innovation, they can educate clients about
how it can be adopted to reduce uncertainty in the cause-effect relationships involved in
achieving a desired outcome.
The change agent usually seeks to ensure the adoption of new ideas, but may also attempt to
slow down diffusion and prevent the adoption of undesirable innovations.
Change agents are known to use opinion leaders in diffusion campaigns. Change agents
usually introduce innovations into a client system that they expect changes which can be
desirable, direct and anticipated, but often some innovations result in some unanticipated
consequences that are indirect and undesirable for the systems members. Change agents can
predict an innovation’s form and perhaps its function but not its meaning for the client.
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Change aides complement the change agent, by having more intensive contact with clients,
and who have less competence credibility but more safety or trustworthiness credibility).
3.2 Functions of Change Agents.
The change agent functions are to:
 develop a need for change on the part of the client;
 establish an information-exchange relationship;
 diagnose the client problems;
 create intent to change in the client;
 translate this intent into action;
 stabilize adoption and prevent discontinuance; and
 shift the client from reliance on the change agent to self-reliance.
3.3 Characteristics and reason for the change agents
Change is no single event, it takes time to plan for change for change, try new practices and
incorporate new programs effectively. Change is a process, which progress ones a period of time.
Whilst change itself always carries with it improbability, the process of change should be
managed by an effective plan, unambiguous rules, processes, protocol and system. Educational
researchers have defined change agent for organizations and individuals as :
(i) Change can energize, act as a catalyst.
(ii) Build a sense of community.
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(iii) Process of change may not be embraced by all.
(iv) Conflicts are a natural part of the change process.
(v) Involvement in the change process is individualistic and ultimately the responsibility of
each person within the organisation, (vi) When individuals have clearly defined goals and
expectations along with an understanding that the change can be effective, success and more
acceptance of the
change process can occur.
Reasons for the change agent:
(i) Technological Advanchement the new technologies basically CRM, e-business and
knowledge management technology is now considered as a strategic tools, an automation tool in
the past. This necessitates upgrading of the existing skill sets of employees change as well. The
advancement in the information Agricultural technology requires organisations to.
(ii) Be able to develop an IT strategy that fully supports and enables the business strategy to
develop and grow.
(iii) Listen to business needs and traslate them into technology requirements.
(iv) Make the common database availabel to all in customer service management.
(v) Use easy access to a knowledge management approach and technology to turn individual
knowledge into comnpany wide knowledge speedily and effectively.
The process to manage the change :
Implementation of the above processes bring large scale organisational changes which must be
managed properly employees must strive to appraise the situation so as to identity major barriers
and evolve strategies to deal with the new situation. Implementing the change process is as
immense as the challenge of creating innovative business process solutions but change brings
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destruction as wel. Incorporation of both these hard and soft skills will help to win widespread
support for process changes and methodologies to execute the solution effectively.
As a change agent in Agricultural organization there should be: (i) Sensitivity Training :
Sensitivity Training refers to a method of changing behavior through unstructured group
interface T-groups aim at the following :
• Understanding one's own behaviour and how one's behaviour affets others
• Understanding why people behave the way they do.
• Encouraging on to try out new ways of interacting with people and receiving
feedback.
• Understanding group processes.
• Developing tolerance for other people's behaviour.
4.0 Conclusion
Change agents are influential in enhancing adoption of an innovation. They work together
with opinion leaders and change aides to achieve this. Though change agents can
anticipate an innovation’s usefulness, but they may not be able to foresee its meaning for
the clients.
5.0 Summary
We have defined and described characteristics of change agents. The defining
characteristic of opinion leaders is that they are well respected in their social system.
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 Who are change agents?
 Discuss their characteristics and role in the diffusion and adoption of innovation
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Unit 12
Theoretical Formulations on the Diffusion of Innovations
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Theoretical Formation of the Diffusion of Innovation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The theory of innovation diffusion may be understood as capturing the innovation-
decision process, innovation characteristics, adopter characteristics, and opinion
leadership. The innovation- decision process represents the framework on which
diffusion research is built. It delineates the process through which a decision maker
(representing any unit of analysis) chooses to adopt, reinvent (modify), or reject an
innovation.
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2.0 Objectives
 Examine the formulation of theory on diffusion of innovations
 Discuss the four theories on the diffusion of innovation
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Theoretical Formulations on the Diffusion of Innovations
The theoretical work of Everett Rogers (1995) initially resulted in the collection of
knowledge gained from the rural sociology tradition, then facilitated the transition to
communication perspectives, and now has served as the mainstay of what is developing
as a more cross-disciplinary focus on innovation diffusion. His contribution is twofold:
 He created inventories of findings from many disciplines and from many types of
innovation. These inventories provided impetus for the development of a definition of
innovation diffusion that was not bound by discipline.
 Rogers assembled and refined theoretical structures aimed at explaining the principal
features of innovation diffusion. The theoretical work has cemented a core of knowledge
and principles that are widely identified (and used empirically) as the bases of the
diffusion of innovations.
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Rogers (1995) based on his findings, presented four diffusion theories as follows:
3.2 Theories of Diffusion of Innovation
1. Innovation Decision Process theory-Potential adopters of a technology progress over time
through five stages in the diffusion process. In the persuasion stage, the decision maker forms a
positive or negative attitude toward the innovation. The third stage, decision, deals with the
decision-makers choice to accept or reject the innovation. Implementation, the fourth stage,
follows a decision to accept and involves putting the innovation into some use (in either its
accepted form or some modified form). During the final stage of confirmation, decision makers
assess an adopted innovation, gather information from significant others, and choose to continue
to use the innovation as is, modify it (reinvention), or reject it. While some have criticized the
stage model as too linear, Rogers (1983) has convincingly argued that existing formulations
afford a degree of interpretative and predictive flexibility that averts historical problems with
stage models in social science.
2. Individual Innovativeness theory-Individuals who are risk takers or otherwise
innovative will adopt an innovation earlier in the continuum of diffusion. Identifying the
characteristics of people who adopt innovations raises the question of interpersonal
influence. Three issues are addressed in the development of propositions about the role of
interpersonal influence in the innovation decision process: information flow, opinion
leadership, and diffusion networks. Over time, information flow has been seen as a
‘‘hypodermic needle’’ model, a two-step flow (to opinion leaders, then other adopters),
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and a multi-step flow. Currently, information flows are seen as multi-step in nature and
are described in terms of homophily and heterophily— the degree to which pairs of
interacting potential adopters is similar or dissimilar. Opinion leadership denotes the
degree to which one member of a social system can influence the attitude and behavior of
others. This concept is presently discussed relative to spheres of influence, wherein a
given person may be a leader or follower depending upon the part of the diffusion
network being referenced. The diffusion or communication network is the structural stage
upon which social influence takes place.
3. Rate of Adoption theory-Diffusion takes place over time with innovations going
through a slow, gradual growth period, followed by dramatic and rapid growth, then a
gradual stabilization and finally a decline. The third component of diffusion of innovation
theory addresses adopter characteristics. Adopter categories are classifications of
individuals by how readily they adopt an innovation. Rogers (1983) identifies nine
socioeconomic variables, twelve personality variables, and ten personal communication
characteristics that have been demonstrated to bear upon adoption choices. In general, the
literature holds that early adopters are more likely to be characterized by high
socioeconomic status, high tolerance of uncertainty and change, low levels of fatalism
and dogmatism, high integration into the social system, high exposure to mass media and
interpersonal communication channels, and frequent engagement in information seeking.
4. Perceived Attributes theory- Different innovations have different probabilities of
adoption and hence, different adoption rates. That is, they travel through the innovation
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decision process at varying speeds. The literature demonstrates that five characteristics of
innovations influence the adoption decision. Compatibility refers to the congruence
between an innovation and the prevailing norms, values, and perceived needs of the
potential adopter. Higher levels of compatibility are associated with greater likelihood of
adoption. Innovation complexity, on the other hand, is negatively associated with
adoption. The extent to which use of an innovation is visible to the social group—called
observability—is positively related to adoption. Relative advantage refers to the extent to
which an innovation is perceived to be ‘‘better’’ than the idea, practice, or element that it
replaces. Higher relative advantage increases the probability of adoption. Finally,
trialability— the extent to which an innovation may be experimented with—also
increases the probability of adoption
4.0 Conclusion
Diffusion of innovation is an area of extension education that has received most support
from empirical research. The main theories, which are product of the research relevant to
diffusion of innovations, have been discussed. Other theories that are relevant also exist.
There is need to ask new questions and study new problems if science must be advanced
to solve practical extension problems.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we have examine the role of Everett Rogers in formulation of theory on
diffusion of innovations. The four theories on the diffusion of innovation have also been
discussed.
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Describe the contribution of the theoretical work of Everett Rogers to diffusion of
innovation.
 Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.
 Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: The Free Press.
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Unit 13
Sectors Related to Differential Rates of Adoption of New Agricultural Technology
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sectors Related to Differential Rates of Adoption of New Agricultural Technology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
As it has increasingly been applied to agricultural, international development, public health, and
educational interventions, classical diffusion of innovation theory is evolving into a science of
dissemination.
Agricultural Mechanization embraces the use of tools, implements and machines for agricultural
land development, crop production, harvesting, preparation for storage, storage, and on-farm
processing. It includes three main power sources: human, animal, and mechanical. The
manufacture, distribution, repair, maintenance, management and utilization of agricultural tools,
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implements and machines is covered under this discipline with regard as to how to supply
mechanization inputs to the farmer in an efficient and effective manner.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to
Explain the concept of sectorial Differential Rates of Adoption of New Agricultural
Technology
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differential Rates of Adoption of New Agricultural Technology
The organizational factors that promote and inhibit successful technological implementation and
adoption is critical. This enhances existing models of information technology implementation
and adoption but tailors to the issues facing the public sector. If public agricultural administrators
can find improved methods of implementing and adopting technology, they will be able to fulfill
the promise of the link between technology and productivity. By managing these information
technology based assets, millions if not billions of dollars will be available to use in other ways.
It is well known that top-down bureaucratic means of transferring technology do work.

One factor, other than administrative support, responsible for the diffusion was the suitability
and adaptability of the technology over large areas of developing countries. If technology is
good and provides spectacular results, some farmers do not lag behind in its adoption and
adaptation. Why does the problem arise when this model of technology transfer is used?
farmers with small or big access to resources and institutions, have ability (skills) to use new
technology and have assurance of future returns from present investments and do not have to
worry about others’ behavior vis-a-vis one’s own, the technological diffusion does not pose
much problems.
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Price and procurement support besides input subsidies have played in diffusion of technology.
The private sector recognized tremendous scope of gains in participating and accelerating
technology transfer.
High expenses and poor internal collaboration often sink provider efforts to implement new
technology initiatives. Conversely, the 18 case studies in the report identified seven markers of
success: a culture that values innovation, good champions, involved board directors, a
willingness to outsource, a forward-looking information technology team, a take-charge
approach and a commitment to clean up processes.
“These studies offer valuable insights to providers about implementing innovative technology-
enabled care models
3.2 Agricultural Technology Adaptation and Appropriateness
Rarely is the same technological solution optimal everywhere. The value of an innovation
depends on socio-economic, climatic, and ecological specifics.
Export of technologies across regions without adaptation may lead to negative environmental
side effects and waste. A technology may have several versions to meet needs and capabilities of
various users in a region, e.g., large vs. small farmers’ versions of a machinery.
Labor shortages led to mechanized equipment; Drought conditions led to improved irrigation
Energy crises led to higher efficiency cars. Farmers’ cooperatives were established during
periods of excessive low farm prices. Environmental regulations trigger cleaner technologies. A
tax on carbon will lead to improved stoves and power plants. Universities and start-up companies
are becoming major sources of new innovations. The ownership of a technology and leadership
in its applications move between organizations over time. For example:
I. Incentives for Innovations

II. Patents: Awards monopoly rights for 17-20 years.
III. Patent protection allows publication of research findings that leads to innovations.
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IV. Patent rights (for certain applications) can be transferred.
V. Patents are valid only where they are registered.
VI. Copyright protection: Pertains to books, brand names, and the media.
VII. Trade secrets: Protects against thefts.
VIII. Plant breeders’ right: Allows exclusive sales of varieties and allows farmers to reuse
seeds.
IX. Prizes: Awarded to winners of a contest for finding a technical solution to a problem.
X. Indigenous knowledge is poorly protected.
Mechanical Agricultural innovations: Tractors and cars are adopted by larger farms and richer
families.
In the case of a tractor,
L = size of farm
a = saving per acre
P = cost of tractor
Adopt if P > aL
L = P/a critical size.
Critical size declines because P declines. As a result of learning by doing, a increases as a result
of learning by using.
Other Examples
Water-conserving technologies (sprinklers) increase water-use efficiency if:
a. With traditional technology,

b. 50% of applied water is actually consumed.
c. 75% is consumed with sprinklers.
d. It results in higher yield and water saving.
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Technology adoption occurs in sandy soils and hills where the traditional technology is
especially inefficient, Locations where the price of water is high. With high-value crops. Green
Revolution technologies are high-yield varieties that require complementary inputs (fertilizers
and sometimes water). They are adopted when:
I. They have high yield and cost effects.

II. Farmers have access to credit.
III. Adoption and Risk
IV. Impacts of technologies are unknown.
V. Risk considerations slow adoption.
One approach in assessing a technology:
I. Maximize Expected benefits-a risk

II. where a is a coefficient of risk aversion.
III. Risk may be measured by a variance of profit.
IV. Policies that reduce risk include
V. insurance (crop insurance enhances adoption)
VI. Diversification.
An alternative approach:
a. Select the technology with the highest benefit given that it yields minimum required
benefits at the worst case scenario.
a. This approach aims to assure sufficient resource during drought.
b. Good inventories, banking systems, and asset accumulation possibilities reduce
the need for protection against risks.
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4.0 Conclusion
Mechanization in Agriculture embraces the use of tools, implements and machines for
agricultural land development, crop production, harvesting, preparation for storage,
storage, and on-farm processing. Top-down bureaucratic means of transferring
technology do work. Rarely is the same technological solution optimal everywhere.Hence
the need to select the technology with the highest benefit given that it yields minimum
required benefits at the worst case scenario.
5.0 Summary
In this unit you leant that the establishment of an innovative capability starts with a buildup
of capacity to support and adopt innovations and new technologies. Innovations respond to
need and economic conditions. Inventors, investors, and researchers put effort into solving
burning problems, and that leads to innovations. The value of an innovation depends on
socio-economic, climatic, and ecological specifics.
I. What is meant by the term agricultural technology adaptation and appropriateness
II. Explain briefly the concept of differential rates of adoption of new agricultural
technology
7.0 Reference/Further Readings
Richard E. Just and David Zilberman (1983), "Stochastic Structure, Farm Size, and Technology
Adoption in Developing Agriculture," Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 35, No. 2 (July, 1983), pp.
307-328.
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Unit 14
Implication of these Innovation-Decisions
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Implication stages of Innovation-Decisions
3.2 Consequences Of Innovation-Decisions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Adoption studies on agriculture technologies have often revealed that farm households
that did adopt has systematically different characteristics than the group of farm
households that did not adopt. Adopters of improved pigeon pea for example have
significantly higher consumption expenditure than non-adopters. It has also shown that
adoption of such improved technologies reduces poverty significantly. This confirms the
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potential direct role of agricultural technology adoption on improving rural household
welfare, as higher incomes from improved technology also mean less poverty.
Inadequate local supply of seeds, equipment, etc. and access to information about the new
innovation are key constraints for adoption of such technologies. This implies the need
for policy to strengthen and leverage government extension services and rural institutions
to promote and create awareness about the existing improved agriculture technologies.
The government will need to take the lead in technology promotion and dissemination at
the initial stages and in creating an enabling environment for effective participation of the
private sector. Awareness campaigns for improved varieties and equipment, combined
with improved local availability of improved seeds for example at reasonable prices offer
the most promising policy mix to accelerate and expand adoption.
Distance learning refers to the teaching and learning situation in which the instructor and
learner are engaging in interactive instructional settings when they are separated
geographically by time and place. Distance learning takes advantage of currently
available technologies to achieve two main objectives: (a) providing equitable access to
quality education and (b) meeting the unique learning needs and styles of individuals.
Distance education technology holds great potential for enhancing teaching in most
institutions of learning, but faculty must be willing and prepared to use it. Hence, the
provision of quality professional development in various areas of distance education
would enable educators to make the necessary changes in order to effectively integrate
these distance technologies. Change is not always easy, so the integration of various
change theories, particularly adoption models, into professional development plans seems
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very promising. Many higher education institutions are planning for effective distance
education training without significant consideration of the adoption stages and processes
that faculty will encounter. The future for improvement of teaching and learning in
educational institutions is dependent on effective, quality professional development that
integrates the research on change, particularly, the adoption of innovations. The present
and future role of distance education, as an innovation, in our educational institutions,
seems inevitable, based on past and present research and trends. Hence, the delivery of
quality courses and programs using distance technologies may be effectively achieved by
integrating models of adoption into plans for professional development in educational
institutions.
USAID and its partners will support the formulation of comprehensive science and
technology systems appropriate to specific national and regional conditions, strengthen
national capacity for conducting research, and promote public awareness of the value of
innovation in accelerating agricultural growth. Reducing the knowledge gap in
developing countries will require leadership from the professional agricultural research
and education communities; expanded participation from agribusiness and market
participants; and the development of innovative models for linking producers,
entrepreneurs, and agribusinesses to information they need
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
I. Explain the implication of Innovation-Decisions
II. Explain the consequences of Innovation-Decisions
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3.0 Main Content
3.1 Implication of stages Innovation-Decisions
a) Knowledge Stage
At the Knowledge Stage there is recall of information, comprehension of messages and
acquisition of Knowledge or skill for effective adoption of innovation.
b) Persuasion Stage
During Persuasion Stage there is a Liking the innovation, Discussion of new behavior
with others, Acceptance of the message, Formation of positive image of the message and
innovation and Support for the innovative behavior from the system.
c) Decision Stage
At Decision Stage there is Intention to seek additional information about the innovation
and Intention to try innovation.
d) Implementation
At the stage Implementation there is acquisition of additional info about innovation and
Use of innovation on regular basis continued use of innovation.
e) Confirmation Stage
Finally, at the stage of Confirmation Stage, benefits of using the innovation is recognized
and Integration of the innovation into ongoing routine is achieved and there is promotion
of innovation to others
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3.2 Consequences of Innovation-Decisions
As the use of some new innovation spreads throughout a group or society, concern must
ultimately shift away from "how it happened" to "what impact has it had or will it have." If we
desire to possess an understanding of the role and impact of mediated communications in our
contemporary society we must explore the outcomes that have resulted from adoption of
innovations. The difficulty surrounding the assessment of consequences is based on a number of
inhibiting factors. First and foremost is the fact that most consequences resulting from some type
of innovation occurs over a long period of time. It is hard to measure and track changes of this
kind.
Secondly, those who "sponsor" such investigations tend to be the agencies that introduced the
innovation. As might be expected, these agencies tend to think only in terms of the beneficial
changes that occur. Undesirable consequences, whether direct or indirect, are very often
overlooked or never recognized.
Thirdly, it is very difficult to directly identify a resultant effect because they are very often
mixed together with other changes that have occurred.
And finally, evaluations of positive versus negative consequences can be a relative or subjective
decision. Cultural, political, and personal bias will play a major role in how we view the
outcomes of some new innovation. In spite of these difficulties, we must still strive to access the
changes that new modes of communication inject into our social environment.
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Rogers suggests that we analyze consequences across three dimensions:
1) Desirable versus undesirable consequences.
2) Direct versus indirect consequences.
3) Anticipated versus unanticipated consequences.
Desirable/Undesirable Consequences
Desirable consequences are those outcomes which are seen as functional to the social system and
individual members of the group or society. On the other hand, undesirable consequences are
those which are seen as having dysfunctional impacts on individuals or society. The
consequences of an innovation are rarely completely desirable or undesirable, so many times we
must weigh and assess the functional contribution of some innovation against the dysfunctional
effects. Because most new innovations have a tendency to displace the older, more established
methods or technologies, we can find the weighing of desirable versus undesirable consequences
difficult -- new innovations benefit some and hurt others.
For example, in the 1960's, the widespread adoption of cable television was strongly opposed by
local television broadcasters. This innovation was seen as very undesirable by this group because
it would very likely shrink the audience for their programs. While the possible economic impact
on local broadcasters was dysfunctional to their financial interests (and their concerted lobbying
efforts resulted in strict regulation of cable operators), the broader availability of program
options were seen as a functional outcome which would benefit a larger portion of the public. An
important issue surrounding the evaluation of desirable versus undesirable consequences is that it
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is generally not possible to eliminate the dysfunctional effects and keep only the functional ones.
We must accept the good with the bad.
Direct/Indirect Consequences
Direct consequences are the immediate and causally-linked changes that occur due to the
adoption of an innovation. For example, in the early 1950's the widespread adoption of television
caused a significant and severe drop in attendance at movie theaters. A direct consequence of
television was the displacement of the local movie house as a primary source of family
entertainment. Indirect consequences are the changes that occur in response to the direct
consequences. The film industry attempted to attract families back to the movie theaters by
introducing Panavision (wide screens), 3-D, and color films -- enhancements that television
couldn't offer at the time. These changes that occurred in the film industry are indirect
consequences of television's widespread adoption in the 1950's.
Anticipated/Unanticipated Consequences
Anticipated consequences are recognized and intended changes that occur as a result of the
adoption of a new innovation. For example, the widespread "computerization" of banking has
made credit purchases and financial transactions quick and painless. We can now make credit
purchases anywhere in the world -- with no questions asked -- as long as our computer-based
financial file indicates that we are "credit worthy." This is an anticipated outcome of the
computer-based credit systems. Financial transactions are now easy, fast, and convenient.
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However, the introduction of this innovation to banking has brought some unanticipated
consequences as well. Unanticipated outcomes are changes brought on by an innovation that are
not expected, recognized, or intended. Very few of us anticipated that the widespread availability
of credit would alter our sense of privacy. Historically, our individual financial dealings were
looked upon as very private and personal. This information was held in the strictest confidence
by our banker. But now, our "credit worthiness" and our financial profiles are part of the
"semipublic" computer files that provide us with the fast and convenient credit we have come to
expect. A financial "blueprint" of our lives can be accessed at the touch of keyboard by the
companies and individuals with whom we do business. This loss of privacy has come to be
viewed as one of the costs of instant credit -- an unanticipated outcome that is, at the very least,
an undesirable but tolerable consequence.
4.1 Conclusion
Successful efforts to diffuse an innovation depend on characteristics of the situation.
Knowledge: it occurs when an individual is exposed to the innovation's existence and
gains some understanding of how it functions Persuasion: it occurs when an individual
forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation Decision: it occurs when
an individual engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation
Implementation: it occurs when an individual puts an innovation into use Confirmation: it
occurs when an individual seeks reinforcement of an innovation decision or reverse the
previous decision due to the conflict
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5.0 Summary
The implication of innovation decision with respect to when the knowledge is acquired,
persuasion stage, and stage of decision making, implementation and confirmation was discussed
in this unit. You also learnt that the present and future role of distance education, as an
innovation, in our educational institutions, seems inevitable, based on past and present research
and trends. Hence, the delivery of quality courses and programs using distance technologies may
be effectively achieved by integrating models of adoption into plans for professional
development in educational institutions. Finally we analyze consequences across three
dimensions: desirable versus undesirable consequences, direct versus indirect consequences and
anticipated versus unanticipated consequences.
1) Enumerate and explain the implication of Rogers' Stages of Innovation Decision
process.
 Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations (3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.
 Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: The Free Press.
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Unit 15
Factors of Effective Agricultural Extension in Rural Areas
Table of Contents:
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Factors of Effective Agricultural Extension in Rural Areas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Farmers in rural areas view agriculture extension as a form of assistance to help improve
their know-how, efficiency, productivity, profitability, and contribution to the good of their
family, community, and society. Agricultural extension therefore aims to enhance and
accelerate the spread of useful know-how and technologies to rural people. These activities
are expected to lead to increased and sustained productivity, increased income and well-
being of farm people, and to the promotion of national food security and economic growth.
But poor infrastructures, the lack of agreement on the functions of extension, the clientele
to be served, how extension will be financed, frequent changes in organizational structure
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and programme priorities, rapid turnover of the extension staff, and the proliferation and
lack of coordination between different organizations that undertake extension work are
some of the common problems of agriculture extension in Nigeria.
2.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
 Identify and explain the factors required for effective agriculture extension in rural
areas.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors of Effective Agricultural Extension in Rural Areas
The ultimate role of agriculture extension is the impact that extension is having on the
productivity of all major groups of farmers, including their incomes and quality of life. An
effective extension should contribute to sustainable agricultural development in rural areas.
The factors below focus on innovation diffusion and improving agricultural extension
system in Nigeria according to FAO (1998).
a) Need for a Change in Agriculture Extension Policy, Mission and Goals- Nigeria is
largely an agricultural economy with the majority of the population deriving their income
from farming especially in the rural communities. Most policy interventions have focused
on “food security”, a term that is used to cover key attributes of food such as sufficiency,
reliability, quality, safety, timeliness and other aspects of food necessary for healthy and
thriving populations. Although extension has a generic and universal meaning, its mission
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and goals may need to be adjusted according to national objectives and the context and
stage of agricultural and rural development in a given country. This mission should be
reflected in a statement of goals and objectives that are agreed upon and assigned to
extension in a supporting policy document. This document should be periodically reviewed
by policy makers and representatives from stakeholder groups based on their needs.
b) Technological Advancement-Agriculture in Nigeria is faced with enormous technological
challenges. But they also have access to a much larger pool of scientific and technical
knowledge that was not available when the Green Revolution was launched. This
exploration will also include an examination of local innovations as well as indigenous
knowledge. It will cover fields such as information and communications technology,
genetics, ecology and geographical sciences. It will emphasize the convergence of these
and other fields, and their implications for Nigerian agriculture.
c) Enabling Infrastructure- Enabling infrastructure (covering public utilities, public works,
transportation and research facilities) is essential for agricultural development.
Infrastructure is defined here as facilities, structures, associated equipment, services, and
institutional arrangements that facilitate the flow of agricultural goods, services and ideas.
Infrastructure represents a foundational base for applying technical knowledge in
sustainable development and relies heavily on civil engineering. Provision of an enabling
infrastructure for agricultural development is very important. Modern infrastructure
facilities will need to reflect the growing concern over climate change and food insecurity.
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Nigeria’s poor infrastructure represents a unique opportunity to adopt new approaches in
the design and implementation of infrastructure facilities.
d) Agricultural Innovation Systems-The use of emerging technology and indigenous
knowledge to promote sustainable agriculture will require adjustments in existing
institutions. New approaches will need to be adopted to promote close interactions between
government, business, farmers, academia and civil society. Positioning sustainable
agriculture as a knowledge-intensive sector will require fundamental reforms in existing
learning institutions, especially universities and research institutes. Most specifically, key
functions such as research, teaching, extension and commercialization need to be much
more closely integrated.
e) Extension Approach and Functions-National extension systems can pursue one of
several different extension approaches in implementing extension policy. An example of a
technology transfer approach is the Training and Visit (T&V) extension system that has
been promoted by the World Bank through its lending programme. Although the U.S.
extension system has been particularly effective in technology transfer, its main focus has
been on increasing the skills and knowledge of rural farm families, who have become very
effective consumers of agricultural technology. There is need to enhance the T&V
approach with participatory activities that will involve the farmers such as the farmer-field
school.
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5. Geographical Coverage-Geographical coverage can be an important policy issue because
of both political and cost implications. If extension funding is to be provided by different
levels of government (cost sharing), then the structure of extension must reflect these
different sources of funding. Extension personnel will tend to be more responsible to those
levels of government that provide extension funding. For example, if Local Governmental
Authority (LGA) provides some extension funding, then extension personnel will tend to
be more responsive to the needs of farmers and political leaders within these LGA, than
they are if all funding comes from the national government. Therefore, having multiple
sources of funding, especially from different levels of government, will increase the
number of shareholders and result in an extension system that has a broader base of support
and that is more responsive to stakeholders at the local level. Investing in resource poor
farm families may increase their technical, management, and leadership skills, thereby
enabling them or their children to move into higher paying, nonfarm jobs.
6. Clientele or Target Beneficiaries-A common criticism of extension services in
developing countries is their neglect of the vast number of small-scale farmers in favour of
fewer numbers of large farmers, or the very limited attention given to women farmers. The
inclusion of women and rural youth in agricultural extension programmes is generally
recognized in terms of their numbers and contribution to farming. Rural youth may account
for up to 60 per cent of the population in developing countries, therefore they should be
specially recognized for their crucial role in achieving sustainable agricultural and rural
development.
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7. Organizational Issues-The extension organization embodies different aspects of an
extension system, and it provides the management framework for the extension service.
This affects the scope, magnitude, and structure of the extension system, including factors
such as control, cost-effectiveness, and the impact of the extension service. Government
project/policy should be bottom-up approved in order to feel the pause of the farmer before
deciding on what to do for the farmers. Four different forms of extension organization
include centralized organization, decentralized organization, centralized extension and
funding; and pluralistic forms of a national extension system. In Nigeria, almost an
invisible a national extension office exists because extension programming, management,
and the control of activities and resources are vested with state governments that may not
provide fund. The pluralistic forms of a national extension system are an emerging form of
extension organization in many countries. This structure appears to occur in those countries
where the need for extension services is widespread and/or where the public agricultural
extension organization can no longer satisfy its clientele because of resource and
management problems. As a consequence, many publicly and/or privately funded
organizations, including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), ministry of agriculture,
state-funded agricultural colleges and universities, commodity boards, agro-business firms
(contract extension), farmer organizations, cooperatives and commodity associations are
beginning to conduct agricultural extension programmes in an integrated manner.
8. Extension Funding-The most difficult and challenging issue facing extension today is to
secure a stable source of funding. The government has the impression that public extension
is both expensive and a drain on the government's limited resources. Studies carried out in
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both developed and developing countries indicate that the returns to extension expenditures
are high. Therefore, increased level of public funding is necessary to support extension in
relation to the needs of farmers in the country. In Nigeria, absolute levels of extension
funding are very low. The Federal Government must believe in long term benefits that can
be derived from investing in extension services. Extension should therefore provide
constant/periodical reports of the various activities, including progress and limitations. The
funding for extension should be increased to levels that reflect the anticipated economic
rates of return and the social benefits when public funds are properly invested and
managed.
9. Extension Staffing Issues-By the nature of the mission and work that an extension system
carries out; its worth to society is largely reflected by the quality and number of the
technical and professional staff in the organization. Based on the scope of and available
resources, qualification, number of extension staff to be employed by the extension system;
proportion of subject-matter specialists to field extension workers; proportion of field
extension personnel to the number of farmers, farm households, or other target groups;
deployment method of extension staff, frequency of transfer, incentives to be provided in
order to ensure that they work closely with all groups of farmers are crucial issues to be
considered. The government should recruit more extension personnel and make all
available working materials available to them, but at the right time. As senior officers are
retiring, new ones must be employed to ensure that knowledge is transferred. Provision of
incentive for the field officers and Subject Matter Specialist to have motor cycle and
vehicle respectively to facilitate movement to their various cells is important. Payment of
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allowances and kilometer claims regularly at the right time to enhance adequate visits to
farmers, prompt payment of allowances and remuneration to extension personnel will be
necessary and important, if agriculture is to move forward. Extension personnel must be
encouraged to stay with the farmers in the rural areas and facilities to make them
comfortable
should be provided. There is also need for training and re-training within the field officers
to up-date their knowledge for effective dissemination of extension messages.
10. Stability-A good extension policy promotes extension system stability, but need to allow
sufficient flexibility to reflect the dynamic nature of the agricultural sector. Extension
should not be rigid but should be responsive to all major groups of farm people and
sufficiently inclusive to allow public, private, and non-governmental organizations to
contribute fully to the agricultural development goals of the country. Frequent
organizational changes within extension, such as being transferred from one government
agency to another, directly impact the organization's effectiveness. Such instability is
costly in that trained staffs are poorly utilized and opportunities for improved productivity
are forgone. Extension policies in some countries have been successful in preventing
disruptive and destabilizing. All bottle-neck bureaucracies from the Government (Federal,
State and Local government) must be removed to prevent late release of fund.
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11. Business Development
The creation of agricultural enterprises represents one of the most effective ways to
stimulate diffusion and adoption of Innovations. These will include direct financing,
matching grants, taxation policies, government or public procurement policies and rewards
to recognize creativity and innovation. New tools such as information and communication
technologies can be harnessed to promote entrepreneurship.
4.2 Conclusion
There is need to disseminate policy-relevant information on how to align science and
technology missions regional agricultural development goals. It does so in the context
of the larger agenda to promote rural economic integration and development.
5.0 Summary
Factors enhancing effective agricultural extension in rural areas have been discussed in this
unit. It has outlined the need for changes in policies, technology, infrastructure; approaches
in innovation system, extension activities, stability and business development as factors
needed to promote agricultural extension in rural areas.
 Discuss the factors that can enhance agriculture extension in rural areas in Nigeria
121
FAO (1998) Improving Agricultural Extension, A Reference Manual, Edited by Burton E.
Swanson Robert P. Bentz and Andrew J. Sofranko,
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5830E/W5830E00.htm
122

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: AEM: 503

COURSE TITLE: DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS

Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations

Course Developer/Writer Dr. Tosan Fregene

Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries Management

Course Editor Dr. N.E Mundi

School of Science & Technology

National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos

Programme Leader Dr. N.E Mundi

School of Science & Technology

National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos

Course Co-ordinator Mr. Awolumate Samuel

School of Science & Technology

National Open University of Nigeria. Lagos

14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way

No. 5, Dar es Sallam Street

Off Aminu Kano Crescent

Wuse II, Abuja

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

What you will learn in this Course

Final Examination and grading

Tutor and tutorial

What you will Learn in this Course

Welcome to AEM 503 Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations Course!

entirely different perspective.

thoroughly. It tells you:

• The aims and Objectives of the course

• What the course covers.

• The components of the course.

• How your performance in assignments and the examination will be assessed.

• How the tutorial system works.

factors enhancing effective agricultural extension in rural areas

highlighted to illustrate certain issues.

1. Define diffusion and enumerate the elements of diffusion,

2. Explain the processes of adoption and innovation, as well as diffusion of innovation

3. Identify characteristics of innovation, rate of adoption and adopter categories

4. Differentiate between leadership and Change agents

5. Attempt to theoretical formulation on the diffusion of innovations and Implication of these

field trials. Extension officer’s efficiency can be measured:

the farmers is bridged.

(b) By the number of new practices adopted; and

There are fifteen study units in this course:

Unit 1: Definition of Diffusion

Unit 2: Elements of diffusion

Unit 3: Process of adoption

Unit 4: Diffusion of innovation

Unit 5: Innovation Model

Unit 6: The innovation decision process

Unit 7: Characteristics of innovation

Unit 8: Factors Determining the Rates of Adoption

Unit 9: Adopter categories

Unit 10 Opinion leadership

Unit 11: Change agents

Unit 12: Theoretical formulations on the diffusion of innovations

Unit 14: Implication of these processes

Unit 15: Factors of effective agricultural extension in rural areas