Ecosystem: A community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they

inhabit.
Biome: A collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions; for example, tundra,
tropical rainforest, desert.

Ecosystem
Characteristics
Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem Characteristics

 The Tropical rainforest (TRF) biome is mainly found in a band between

15o north and 15o south of the equator within the equatorial climate zone
 Covering only 6% of the Earth's surface the main areas of tropical rainforest
ecosystem are in the following countries;
o Amazon which is the largest remaining rainforest on Earth usually
associated with Brazil but covers parts of seven other countries
o Central America including parts of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama
o Central Africa including Cameroon, the Central African Republic,
the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
Equatorial Guinea and Gabon
o Indo-Malaysia, including Malaysia, Indonesia and a number of
other countries in South-East Asia

Biodiversity

 TRFs contain the highest biodiversity of plants and animals on Earth

o Estimates range from over 50% to 80% of the world's plant and animal
species
o One 10km2 area can contain up to 1,500 flowering plants, 750 species
of trees, 400 species of birds and 150 species of butterflies

Nutrient cycle

 The TRFs have a continual growing season with high rainfall and
temperatures all year round
 The nutrient cycle is rapid
o Trees and plants lose their leaves all year round
o The high level of moisture and high temperatures leads to rapid
decomposition and recycling of nutrients
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 o Plants grow quickly which leads to a rapid uptake of nutrients from
the soil

Tropical rainforest nutrient cycle

 The result of this rapid nutrient cycle is that the soil in the TRF is not very
fertile

Structure of the tropical rainforest

 The TRF has five distinct layers

o Ground layer (0m)
o Shrub layer (3-4m)
o Under canopy (15m)
o Canopy (30m)
o Emergents (45-55m)

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Tropical rainforest structure

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Adaptations

 The plants and animals within the TRF are very well adapted to the climate
conditions

Plants Animals

Waxy leaves with drip

tips - these ensure that
Sloth - algae grow in the fur
rainwater runs off the leaf
of the sloth helping to
and does not remain which
camouflage it
would encourage mould
growth or break the leaf
Buttress roots - these
large roots above the ground
Toucan - has a large bill to
which help to support the
reach and cut fruit from the
very tall trees because the
branches of trees
roots below the surface are
shallow
Lianas - vines which use Primates - have prehensile
the tall trees as support to tails to help them climb
reach the sunlight trees
Epiphytes - these are
Geckos - have large,
plants which grow on trunks
flattened toe pads with
and branches of trees getting
sticky scales which allow
nutrients from air, rain or
them to grip the smooth tree
debris accumulating around
trunks
the plant
Straight, smooth
Stick Insects - their stick
trunks - to reduce the
and leave shapes help them
number of epiphytes using
to be camouflaged
the tree
Exam Tip

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You may be asked to describe the rainforest vegetation characteristics. As well as
adaption features remember to include information about the different layers
and heights of each layer.

Food web

 As in all ecosystems the TRF has a complex food web which includes
o Producers
o Primary consumers
o Secondary consumers
o Tertiary consumers

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Tropical rainforest food web

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Worked example

Study Fig 1, which is a diagram showing information about a tropical

rainforest ecosystem in an area of equatorial climate

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Suggest reasons why some animals live in the canopy but others live
in the ground cover in a tropical rainforest.
[3]

 You need to consider the adaptations and diets of the animals which may
lead them to live in a specific layer
 Answer:
o Some are able to climb/fly whereas others are not
o Some need shelter/protection
o Food supplies available (in canopy/at ground level)
o Different habitats/nesting areas etc

Hot Desert Ecosystem Characteristics

 Hot desert biomes are mostly found in a band around the Tropic of Cancer
and Tropic of Capricorn
 Approximately 20% of the Earth's surface is covered by hot desert
ecosystems including in the following areas;
o North America - the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of the USA and
Mexico
o South America - the Sechura Desert in Peru and the Atacama Desert in
Chile
o Africa - the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib and Somali Deserts
o Middle East - the Arabian Desert
o Asia - the Dasht-e Lut in Iran, the Gobi, Turkestan, Thar and
Taklamakan Deserts
o Oceania - the Australian Desert

Biodiversity

 Hot deserts have one of the lowest biodiversity of plants and animals on
Earth
 The hot desert biome supports approximately 5000-6000 plant species,
many invertebrates and up to 20 species of bird

Nutrient cycle

 The growth of plants is limited due to the extremes of temperature and lack
of water

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 The nutrient cycle is very slow
 Most nutrients are stored in the soil

Hot desert nutrient cycle

 Due to a lack of organic matter the soils are coarse, sandy and low in
nutrients

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Adaptations

 To be able to survive the extreme temperatures and lack of rainfall the

plants and animals are extremely well adapted

Plants Animals
Camels have a range of adaptations
including two sets of eyelashes and nostrils
Low growing - this helps to
which close to keep sand out of their ears
avoid water loss due to strong
and noses. They also store fat in their
winds
humps so they can survive for long periods
without food or water
Thick stems - used to store Fennec Fox - have large ears which help
water them to lose heat
Shallow roots - these spread
Burrowing - many animals burrow to
out near the surface to catch
avoid the intense day time heat
whatever rain falls
Long roots - some plants have
long tap roots instead of shallow Insects and reptiles have waterproof
roots to reach water deep skin to reduce water loss
underground
Small leaves or needles - the
Nocturnal - some animals hunt at night to
smaller surface area reduces
avoid the daytime heat
water loss

Food web

 As in all ecosystems hot deserts have a complex food web which includes
o Producers
o Primary consumers
o Secondary consumers
o Tertiary consumers

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 Hot desert food web

2.5.3 Deforestation of Tropical Rainforest

Deforestation of Tropical Rainforest in Malaysia

 Deforestation is the felling and clearance of trees

 Malaysia, Brazil, India and Indonesia are experiencing the highest levels of
deforestation in the world
o The Malayan government has in the past failed to provide the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) with figures for forest loss

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 World Deforestation 2015

 There are six main human causes of deforestation

 Wildfires are a natural cause of deforestation:
o The frequency and severity of wildfires have increased this is linked to
human induced climate change

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 Human Causes of Deforestation

Exam Tip

It is important to remember that deforestation is often the result of a

combination of factors which are linked together rather than any one cause. For
example, the growth of settlements also leads to more land being cleared for
agriculture to support the people in the settlements.

Environmental impacts of deforestation

 Many of the impacts of deforestation are environmental including:

o Areas that have been deforested are planted
with monoculture which reduces biodiversity

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 o Interception and infiltration decrease which
reduces evapotranspiration and as a
result precipitation decreases
o This also increases overland flow which leads to soil erosion
and sedimentation of the rivers
o Sediment builds up on riverbeds reducing their capacity and
increasing the flood risk
o Lack of interception increases the leaching of nutrients
o Fewer trees increase the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere adding to
the enhanced greenhouse effect

Impact on the nutrient cycle

 The majority of nutrients in the tropical rainforest are held in the biomass
 When trees and vegetation are cleared by deforestation the main store of
nutrients is removed

IMAGE

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 Environmental Impacts of Deforestation

Social impacts of deforestation

 Indigenous communities have less land to sustain their traditional way of

life this means:

o Land does not get the opportunity to recover
o Less food available
 Improved quality of life for some people due to increased income and jobs
 Indigenous communities may give up their way of life leading to a loss of
culture and traditions
 Increased risk of landslides which can destroy homes and block roads
 Loss of potential medicines
 Increased risk of flooding settlements

Economic impacts of deforestation

 More jobs available in mining, forestry, agriculture and HEP

 Increased income for the country through the export of goods from the
forest - minerals, timber, crops
 Almost a quarter of Brazil's GDP comes from activities in the deforested
areas of the Amazon

Worked example

Explain why large amounts of deforestation have occurred in tropical

rainforests.

[5]

 In your answer you need to explain which means that you if you just state
road building for example you will not achieve the higher marks
 You need to explain that road building happens to access remote areas of
forest and requires large areas of trees to be felled and removed

 Answer:
o Economic development (for country)
o To earn money (individuals)/valuable wood
o Large area so difficult to monitor

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 o Corruption
o Logging/timber/furniture/paper
o Firewood/charcoal
o Cattle grazing/ranching/rearing livestock
o Cash crop farming/palm oil/plantations
o Settlement/urban growth/examples of buildings e.g. schools
o Road building/railways
o Mining/quarrying minerals or example e.g. gold
o HEP/dams etc.

Example Case Study: Malaysia

 Malaysia is located in Southeast Asia

Location of Malaysia

 Almost 70% of the land is covered by tropical rainforest

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Climate

 The climate of Malaysia is typical of tropical rainforest climates with high

rainfall and high temperatures all year round

Climate Graph of Kuala Lumbar, Malaysia

 The Malaysian rainforest has high biodiversity with over:

o 15,000 plant species, including 5,500 flowering plants and 2,600 tree
species
o 750 bird species
o 250 mammal species
o 350 reptile species

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o 190 amphibian species
o 350 fish species
o 1000 butterfly species

Malaysian Rainforest Food Web

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Adaptations

 There are many ways in which the animals and plants have adapted to the
rainforest climate including:

Plants Animals
Pitcher plants - some of these
are epiphytes which grow on other
Hornbill - the distinctive bill has
structures like trees and get their
multiple uses. The bird uses it to
nutrients from capturing insects in
help it climb trees, like a trowel for
a funnel which contains a sticky
digging
acidic liquid which dissolves the
insect
Orangutans - long and very
Orchids - these are epiphytes strong arms which enable them to
which grow on other structures move easily through the trees.
such as trees to reach the light Fingers and toes are long used for
gripping tree branches
Malayan Tapir - their colour
Lianas - these are vines which
pattern helps to camouflage them,
attach themselves or wrap
and they use their long nose to
themselves around trees to reach
forage on the forest floor for
the light
leaves, fruit and nuts
Kapur tree - grows up to a height
Mulu Flying Frog - can change
of 60m to reach the light. It has a
colour to camouflage it and it uses
straight branchless trunk to deter
flaps of skin on its legs to glide
epiphytes and lianas from growing
from tree to tree
on it

Deforestation in Malaysia

 It is estimated that Malaysia has the fastest rate of deforestation in the

world
 Since 2000 an average of over 140,000 hectares of forest has been felled
and cleared each year

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Causes

 Logging
o Malaysia is the largest exporter of tropical hardwoods
o Although Malaysia has environmental protection policies there is still
evidence of illegal logging in areas of Borneo
o Selective logging is the dominant type of logging but this requires road
construction and settlements which result in deforestation
 Energy
o The construction of dams to provide Hydroelectric power result in
flooding of large areas of forest
o The Bakun Dam will result in 700km2 of land being underwater in
Sarawak, Malaysia
 Mining
o Tin mines are widespread and require deforestation for the mine itself
but also for road construction
o An iron ore mine planned for the Som Forest Reserve will result in
the deforestation of over 60 hectares
o There is also drilling for oil and gas
 Commercial plantations
o Malaysia exports over 30% of the world's palm oil and is the second
largest producer
o Many palm oil processes now adopting a zero-deforestation
policy so that they do not buy palm oil from deforested areas.
However, Clear felling permits are sometimes used in Malaysia to
clear land and then sometime later another company will plant palm
oil
 Settlements
o Up to 1980 people were encouraged to move to rural areas from the
cities to try and reduce the pressure on urban areas
 This led to the deforestation of approximately 15,000 hectares of
rainforest
 Subsistence farming
o This can sometimes involve slash and burn where areas are cleared
using fires - these can sometimes get out of control and destroy large
areas of rainforest
o

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Effects of deforestation

 Soil erosion
o Without the tree roots to bind the soil, the soil is more easily eroded by
wind and rain
o Exposed soil is more vulnerable to leaching of nutrients and the soil
becomes less fertile
 Loss of biodiversity
o Habitats are destroyed and the ecosystem affected by deforestation so
the variety of plants and animals decreases
o Oil Palm plantations lead to a 35% reduction in species
o Orangutans, pygmy elephants, Sumatran Rhino and Malayan
tigers are all endangered
 Local climate change
o Reduced transpiration and evaporation leads to a decrease in
precipitation and an increase in temperatures
o Rainfall patterns become less reliable and more extreme
 Global climate change
o Felling of the trees leads to a decrease in the absorption of carbon
dioxide
o Increases carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and as this
is a greenhouse gas this increases human induced climate change
o Use of fire for clearance also increases carbon dioxide emissions
 Indigenous communities
o Indigenous communities such as the Orang Asli and Temiar have
been forced off land
o Pollination of fruits has reduced due to a decrease in pollinating
insects and animals such as bats
 This has reduced the available food sources
o In Kuala Koh village 2019 at least 15 indigenous Batek died after an
outbreak of disease possibly transmitted by loggers working near to
the village

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 Example Case Study: Hot Desert, Namib Desert

 The Namib Desert is located mainly in Nambia on the west coast of

Southern Africa

Location of the Namib Desert

 Stretching for over 2,000km from Angola in the north to South Africa to the
south
 The desert is 160km wide

Climate

 The highest day time temperatures can reach over 45oC

 Night time temperatures can be as low as 0oC
 The areas nearest to the coast are cooler due to the effect of a cold ocean
current - the Benguela current
 The cooling effect of the ocean can also lead to the formation of fog which
can affect coastal areas more than half the year
 Annual precipitation varies between 2-200mm a year

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 Climate Graph of Swakopmund

 The Namib Desert has many species which are endemic and has higher
levels of biodiversity than other hot desert areas
o There are approximately 3,500 plant species over 50% of which are
endemic
o 200 mammal species
o 268 reptile species
o Over 6000 insect species

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Adaptations

 There are many ways in which plants and animals have adapted to the
Namib Desert's unique climate, including:
Plants Animals
Welwitschia mirabilis - with
just two leaves this plant only
grows when conditions are
favourable. The long leaves wrap Fog basking beetle - gathers water by
around the bottom of the plant to standing on its head in a morning whilst
give shade to the roots and the fog condensates on its back and trickles
reduce water loss. The colour of down to its mouth
the leaves change turning red
when it is very hot to protect the
plant from the sun
Nara plant - this plant has
spikes instead of leaves to reduce
Desert elephant - have smaller bodies,
water loss and it absorbs the
broader feet and longer legs than other
water droplets from fog through
elephants. The broader feet help to spread
its stems. The bottom of the
their weight on the sand and the smaller
plant dies off as it is covered with
body.
sand, this provides nutrients for
the new growth
Quiver Tree - these are
succulents, they can store water
in their trunks and branches due
to the spongy fibre. Their leaves Wheel spider - these are nocturnal and so
also store water and have a hunt at night when temperatures are cooler
smooth waxy surface to reduce
water loss. The yellowish bark
helps to reflect the sun's heat
Camel Thorn Tree - has a Golden mole - with powerful digging
strong tap root which can grow claws, dense fur which repels dirt so they
up to 60 meters allowing it to can almost swim through the sand. With
absorb water from deep very efficient kidneys they do not need to
underground drink much water all

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Threats and impacts on the desert ecosystem

 Tourism
o Increasing tourism to the Namib desert has led to more activities such
as off-roading and sand boarding
o Estimates suggest that desert soil takes over 2000 years to recover
from being driven over
o Vehicles destroy the small, but essential lichens and plants which are
the foundation of the food web
 Mining
o Mining for diamonds, uranium, copper and zinc all occur in the Namib
desert including the Rössing uranium mine near Swakopmund
o Involves the removal of large areas of sand which then destroys plant
and animal habitats
o Increased pressure on scarce water resources due to the amount of
water used in processing
o Increase in air, soil and water pollution
o Toxic waste may leach into the ground (leachate) which affects water
sources
 Agriculture
o Irrigation increases salt levels in the soil and reduces the plant life
o Increases the pressure on scarce water resources
o Over-grazing in increasingly limited areas reduces the number of plant
species and has impacted on the Golden Mole population
o Farmers shoot and kill the desert lion as they view it as a threat to
their livestock. This lion is now on the vulnerable species list
 Poaching
o Illegal poaching of animals such as the pangolin has impacted on the
food web
o Black rhino numbers have also decreased significantly as a result of
illegal poaching

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Worked example

Study Fig 1, this shows a waste heap produced by the mining of

copper ore. Suggest how this may pose a threat to the natural
environment

[3]

 Answer:
o loss of vegetation [1]
o loss of animal habitats [1]
o covers a large area [1]
o waste could be toxic/toxic leachate [1] affecting rivers/groundwater
(dev.) [1]
o visual pollution [1]

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