DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is the mechanical & chemical breakdown of large molecules of food substances into
smaller forms and the absorption of nutrients into the blood.
The digestive system consists of the Alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract or the
digestive tube (continuous coiled hollow tube) and the Accessory digestive organs.

A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The alimentary canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines
(duodenum, jejunum & ileum), large intestines (caecum, ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon, sigmoid colon), rectum and anus.

The accessory organs consists of the teeth, tongue, salivary gland, liver, pancreas, biliary tract (bile
duct & gall bladder)

The four major layers of the digestive tract are (1) the mucosa, (2) the submucosa, (3) the muscle
layer (muscularis externa) and (4) the serosa.

The lining of the digestive tract also plays a protective role. It safeguards surrounding tissues against
(1) the corrosive effects of digestive acids and enzymes;

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(2) mechanical stresses, such as abrasion; and
(3) bacteria that either are swallowed with food or live in the digestive tract.
The mouth (oral cavity) contains the teeth, tongue and salivary glands. It is bounded by muscle and
bones;

Anteriorly - by the lips , Posteriorly - it is continuous with the oropharynx , Laterally - by the
muscles of the cheeks, Superiorly - by the hard and soft palate , Inferiorly - by muscular tongue

The mouth also contains a voluntary structure that occupies its floor called the tongue. It’s held in
positions to the hyoid bone at its base and a fold of mucus membrane covering to the floor of the
mouth called the frenulum

THE TEETH: Teeth are also found in the mouth and are embedded in the ridges or sockets of the
alveolar ridges of the mandible and maxilla. Function of teeth includes biting and tearing and
grinding or chewing of food.

A WELL LABELLED DIAGRAM OF THE TOOTH

There are four types of teeth namely, canines, incisors, premolars and molars.

Canine (cuspids) is used for bitting off food, Incisor is used to hold food, Premolars (bicuspids) and
molars are used for chewing and grinding

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 DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOOTH

The tooth is made of three main regions namely the crown, neck and root.

The crown is the protruded and visible region above the gum. The neck is the constricted
junction between the crown and the root. The root (one to three) is embedded in the
socket of the mandible or maxillae.

The tooth consists of four layers namely the enamel, dentine, pulp cavity and cement.

The enamel is the hardest part of the tooth consisting of . It protects the tooth
against abrasion and the action of acid produced by bacteria. Simply, it is resistant
to decay.

The dentine is the second hardest part of the tooth consisting of ivory-like substance.
It forms the bulk of the tooth surrounding the pulp cavity. It serves as a shock
absorber by absorbing any stress when the tooth is hit hard.

The pulp cavity contains blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels and pulp. The blood vessels,
nerves and lymph vessels enter and leave through a canal called the apical foramen.
The part of the pulp cavity which extends to the root is called the root canal.

The cement is a bone-like substance which cover the surface of the dentine within the
root of the tooth,. It helps to hold the tooth in position in the socket of the mandible
and maxillae.

SALIVARY GLANDS: There are three types of salivary glands namely, the parotid, sublingual
and submandibular glands.

The parotid gland is the largest of the salivary glands. It is positioned below and in front of the
auricle of the ear, between the skin and the masseter muscle. Saliva produced in the parotid gland
drains through the parotid (Stensen’s) duct.

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The sublingual gland lies under the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth. Each
sublingual gland contains several small sublingual ducts (Rivinus’ ducts) that empty into the floor
of the mouth in an area posterior to the papilla of the submandibular duct.

The submandibular gland lies inferior to the body of the mandible, about midway along the
inner side of the jaw. This gland is covered by the more superficial mylohyoid muscle. Saliva
produced in the submandibular gland drains through the submandibular (Wharton’s) duct
The salivary glands are accessory digestive glands that produce a fluid secretion called saliva.
Saliva functions in the chemical digestion of polysaccharide (amylase), lubricating of food,
cleaning and lubricating of the mouth, non specific defense (killing of microbes) and taste.

Saliva contains water, mineral salts, enzyme: salivary amylase,

mucus, lysozyme, immunoglobulins, blood-clotting factors.

TONGUE: It is a voluntary muscular structure which occupies the floor of the

mouth. It is attached by its base to the hyoid bone.
The tongue functions to move food around in the mouth during mastication and to assist in
swallowing food. It is also essential in producing speech

PHARYNX: It is about 13cm long connecting the oral and nasal cavities to the esophagus and
larynx. The pharynx has both digestive and respiratory functions. The pharynx is divided into 3
regions namely, nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx.

Nasopharynx is not part of the digestive system.

Oropharynx is posterior to oral cavity.
Laryngopharynx is below the oropharynx and connected to the oesophagus.

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OESOPHAGUS: The esophagus is a narrow tube that extends from the pharynx above and
its continuous with the stomach below. It’s about 25cm long and 2cm in diameter and lies in the
median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the heart.

STOMACH:
DESCRIPTION OF THE STOMACH

Structurally, the stomach is continuous with the oesophagus at the cardiac sphincter and with the
duodenum at the pyloric sphincter. It has two (2) curvatures (small or lesser and greater
curvatures).

The stomach is divided into three (3) regions. This are the fundus (upper part), body
(middle) and the pylorus (pyloric antrum). At the distal end of the pyloric antrum is
the pyloric sphincter, guarding the opening between the stomach and the duodenum.

The stomach has four (4) basic layer structures just as any part of the alimentary
tract but with some modification. Its muscle layer consists of 3 layers of muscle
fibre - they are outer
longitudinal fibres, a middle layer of circular fibres and an inner layer of oblique
fibres. This arrangement allows for churning motion and peristaltic movement.

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 FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH:

Temporary storage of food.

Chemical digestion - pepsin converts proteins to polypeptides. Mechanical breakdown -
churning process
Limited absorption of water, alcohol and some lipid - soluble drugs.
Non specific defense against microbes - eg hydrochloric acid (HCL)
Preparation of iron for absorption along the digestive tract by solubilisation of iron salt
before
Production and secretion of intrinsic factor for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the
terminal ileum.
Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum.
Secretion of the hormone gastrin.

DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH

Digestion of carbohydrate starts in the mouth. When food is taken into the mouth, the teeth are
used for mastication with excretion of saliva from the salivary glands. This helps to soften the
food and gives it a large surface area allowing the tongue to mix it and turn into a bolus for
swallowing. Here the carbohydrate (starch) is broken down into disaccharides by the enzyme
salivary amylase before deglutition (swallowing).

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

Digestion of protein starts in the stomach. When food containing protein enters the stomach, the
gastric glands contain several types of cells that secrete different products:
1. goblet cells, which secrete mucus;
2. parietal cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl);
3. chief (or zymogenic) cells, which secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of the
protein digesting enzyme pepsin;
4. G cells which secrete the hormone gastrin into the blood

These products mixes with the food and breaks the food into smaller pieces through the churning
action of the muscle fibers into chyme.

Here water further liquefies the food swallowed, hydrochloric acid acidifies the food hence
killing ingested microbes, providing an enabling environment for effective digestion by pepsin.

Pepsinogen is activated by the hydrochloric acid into pepsin breaking down protein into smaller
molecules called polypeptides.

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The chyme moves by strong peristaltic contraction into the duodenum. This is regulated by the
pyloric sphincter.

DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINES

When acid chyme passes into the small intestines it is mixed with pancreatic juice, bile and
intestinal juice, and is in contact with the enterocytes of the villi.

Enterokinase (in enterocytes) activates chymotrpsinogen and trypsinogen into chymotrypsin and
trypsin. Chymotrypsin and trypsin converts polypeptides into tripetide, dipeptides, peptides and
finally into amino acid for absorption.

Here the digestion of the nutrients is completed. This mixture of pancreatic juice and bile
changes the acidity level of the chyme into alkaline, the best medium for the pancreatic enzymes
amylase and lipase to work effectively on.

Here the pancreatic amylase convert all digestible polysaccharides (starch) not acted upon by
salivary amylase to disaccharides.

Bile from the liver uses bile salts to emulsify fat and pancreatic lipase convert fats into fatty acid
and glycerol to be absorbed in the small intestine including water soluble vitamins into the
capillaries and fat soluble ones into the lacteals of the villi.

In the ileum, sucrase, maltase and lactase (in enterocytes) convert disaccharides’ into
monosaccharide’s (mainly glucose) for absorption in the villi into blood capillaries.

Absorption of nutrients occurs by either diffusion or active transport into the capillaries of the
villi. Function of small intestine includes; onward movement of it its content by peristalsis,
secretion of intestinal juice, completion of chemical digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fat,
protection against infection, secretion of hormones like cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin and
absorption of nutrients.
LARGE INTESTINE (COLON), RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL

This is about 1.5m long, beginning at the caecum in the right iliac fossa and ending
at the rectum and forms an arch round the coiled- up small intestines.

The other parts are ascending colon and, transverse colon, descending colon and
sigmoid of the colon and is about 13cm. it leads from sigmoid colon and ends at the
anal canal.

Functions of the large intestines, rectum and anal canal

1. Absorption of water, mineral salt, vitamins some drugs into the blood stream and
consistency of faeces are achieved in the large intestines.

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2. Mass movement - a strong peristalsis sweep at 2hrs intervals forces content into the
descending and sigmoid colons.
3. The act of defecation is achieved by the way of elimination of waste materials.

LIVER

The liver is the largest gland in the body and weighs between 1-2.3kg. its situated in the upper
part of the abdominal cavity occupying the greater part of the right hypochondriac region, part of
the epigastric region and extending into the left hypochondriac region.

It’s is held in position by supporting ligaments to the inferior surface of the diaphragm. It has
four (4) lobes of which 2 are very obvious, the large right lobe and smaller left wedge - shaped
lobe.

The caudate and quadrate lobes are the other 2 lobes found in its posterior aspect. At its posterior
surface structures like portal vein and nerve fibres enters the liver while hepatic artery, right and
left hepatic duct and lymph vessels leaves the liver at a place called the portal fissure.

Functions of the liver

1. Carbohydrates metabolism - the liver convert glucose into glycogen for storage under the
influence of insulin and also converts glycogen back to glucose in the presence of
glucagon.
2. Fat metabolism. The liver store fat and can convert it to a form in which it can be used by
the tissue to provide energy.

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3. Deamination of amino acids.
4. Breakdown of erythrocytes and defence against microbes by the kupffer cells.
5. Detoxification of drugs and noxious (harmful ) substance.
6. Inactivation of hormones e.g. insulin, glucagon.
7. Production of heat. It’s the main heat producing organ in the body by its metabolic
activities.
8. Secretion of bile - synthesis of bile constituents from the mixed arterial and venous
blood.
9. Storage of substances such as glycogen, fat soluble vitamin A, D, E, K, iron, copper and
some water souluble vitamins e.g. vitamin.

PANCREAS

The pancreas is an exocrine and an endocrine organ and weighs 60g.It is situated in the
epigastric and hypochondriac regions of the abdominal cavity and measures 12 to 15cm.

Its pale grey in colour and consists of a broad head (surrounded by the duodenum), body (behind the
stomach) and its tail infront of the left kidney and touching the spleen.

Structurally, the pancreas consists of a large number of lobules made up of small alveoli
with secretory cells. This gradually form a major duct called pancreatic duct which
joints the hepatic duct to eventually open into the duodenum (hepatopancreatic duct ).

The pancreas also has a cluster of cells which secretes insulin and glucagon directly
into the blood stream.

BILIARY TRACT (SYSTEM)

It consists of organs and ducts namely, bile duct, gallbladder.

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BILE

hen the liver secretes bile, it flows through a system of duct that connects the liver to the right
and left hepatic ducts. The hepatic duct then joins with cystic duct from the gall bladder. The
cystic and hepatic duct merges to form a bile duct which passes down behind the head of the
pancreas.

GALL BLADDER: It is a pear- shaped sac which is made up of fundus, body

and a neck. FUNCTION OF THE GALL BLADDER:

It stores bile
It releases stored bile

It concentrates bile by absorbing

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system consist of Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchioles, and smaller air
passages, lungs, intercostals muscles and the diaphragm. The nasal cavity is the main route for
air entry, and consists of large irregular cavity divided into two equal passages by a septum

The nose is the first of the respiratory passages through which the inspired air passes. Its function
is to bring the process by which air is warmed, moistened and filtered. The nose is also an organ
of smell and has nerves ending which are stimulated by air borne odours. The pharynx is 12-
14cm long tube that extends from the base of the skull to the level of the 6th cervical vertebra. It
lies behind the nose, mouth and larynx and hence has 3 openings, nasopharynx (opening onto the
nose), oropharynx (opening onto the mouth) and laryngopharynx (opening into the larynx).
Structurally, the pharynx has 3 layers, mucous membrane lining, fibrous tissue and smooth
muscles.

Its function include, passage for air, food, taste, hearing, protection (tonsil) warming and
humidifying of air and speech (resonance - voice of individual).

The larynx or voice box’’ extends from the root of the tongue and the hyoid bone to the trachea. It
grows larger in males after puberty, which explains the importance of the Adam apple and the
generally deeper voice. Structurally, the larynx is composed of several irregular shape cartilages
attached to each other by ligaments and membranes.

Some of its function includes production of sound, speech, protection of the lower
respiratory tract, passage way for air and humidifying, filtering and warming of
air.

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The trachea extend downward to divide into 2 bronchi at a place called carina, one bronchus
going into each lung, it’s about 10-11cm and lies in the median plane in front of the oesophagus.

Structurally, the trachea is composed of 3 (three) layers of tissue, and held open by between 16-
20 incomplete(c-shape) rings of hyaline cartilages.

The three (3) layers of tissue surrounding the cartilages of the trachea are;

1. Outer layer -fibrous and elastic tissue

2. Middle layer-cartilage and bands of smooth muscles

3. Inner layer ciliated columnar epithelium with mucous secreting globlet cells

Functions of the trachea include;

1. Support and patency especially during swallowing

2. Mucocilliary escalator: propelling of mucus towards larynx for swallowing or for coughing
out.

3. Cough reflex

4. Warming, humidifying and filtering of air.

The right bronchus is wider, shorter and more vertical than he left bronchus and is therefore more
prone to obstruction by inhaled foreign bodies. After entering the right lung, it further divides and
sub divides into smaller branches called the bronchioles.

The left bronchus is narrower than the right bronchus. Structurally, the bronchi are composed of the
same tissue as the trachea, and are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.
The bronchi further divides into bronchioles and alveoli where exchange of gasses take place.

There are about 150 million alveoli in the adult lungs, lying between the squamous cell are the
septal cells which secrete surfactant, a phospholipids fluid which prevents the alveoli from
drying.

Surfactant presence in the new born babies facilitates expansion of the lungs and the establishment
of respiration.

Functions of alveoli include defense against microbes, warming and humidifying of air and site for
exchange of gases.

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RESPIRATION

This means, the exchange of gases between body cells and the environment. Breathing supplies
oxygen to the alveoli, and eliminates carbon dioxide. The main muscles used in normal
respiration are the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.

There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles that occupy the spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs.
They are arranged in two layers, the external and internal intercostal muscles. The first rib is
fixed. Therefore when the intercostal muscles contract, they pull all the other ribs towards the
first rib resulting in the expansion of the thoracic cavity. The muscles are stimulated to contract
by the intercostal nerves. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle and is the structure separating
the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. It forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and the roof of
the abdominal cavity. It give attachment to the lower ribs, sternum, and to the vertebral column.

The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract simultaneously, enlarging the thoracic cavity
in all directions.

Cycle of respiration The average respiratory rate is 12 to 15 breaths per minute. Each breathe
consist of 3 phases - Inspiration, Expiration and pause

- Inspiration (inhalation)

During inspiration, there is simultaneous contraction of the intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm. The parietal pleura also move with the walls of the thorax and the diaphragm. This
reduces the pressure in the thorax. The pleura also pull the lungs causing the alveoli to open and
draw in the air in an attempt to equalize the atmospheric pressure. This process of inspiration is
active as it needs energy for muscle contraction. At rest inspiration last about 2 seconds.

-Expiration (Exhalation)

Relaxation of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm results in the downward and inward
movement of rib cage and elastic recoil of the lungs. As this occurs, pressure inside the lungs
exceeds that in the atmosphere and so air is expelled from the respiratory tract. This process is
passive as it does not require the use of energy. At rest expiration last about 3 seconds, and after
expiration there is a pause before next cycle begins.

The composition of inspired and expired air

Inspired air% Expired air %

Oxygen 21 16

Carbon dioxide 0.04 4

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 Nitrogen /rare gases 78 78

Water vapour Variable Saturated

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Both males and females produce specialized reproductive germ cells called gametes. The males
produce spermatozoa and the female gametes are called ova.

The gametes contain the genetic materials called genes or chromosomes which pass inherited
characteristics onto the next generations.

Fertilization is the fusion between an ovum and a spermatozoon resulting into a zygote which has

a full complement of 46 chromosomes.

The zygote embeds itself in the wall of the uterus where it grows and develops
during the 40 weeks gestation period before birth.

A . Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive organs or genitalia are divided into external and internal organs;

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 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
1. External Genitalia (Vulva)
This consists of the labia majora and labia minora, the clitoris, the vaginal orifice, the vestibule, the
hymen, and the vestibular glands (Bartholins glands).

❖ Labia majora
These are the large two folds forming the boundary of the vulva. They are composed of
skin, fibrous tissue and fat and contain large numbers of sebaceous glands. Anteriorly
they join in front of the symphysis pubis and posteriorly merge with the skin of the
perineum. Hair grows on the mons pubis and the lateral aspects at puberty.
❖ Labia Minora
These are two small folds of skin between the labia majora and contain numerous
sebaceous glands. The space between the labia minora is the vestibule where the vagina
and urethra are situated. Ducts of the greater vestibular glands open into this area
❖ Clitoris
This corresponds to the penis in the male with sensory nerve ending and erectile tissue. It however
has no reproductive importance.
❖ Hymen
This is an incomplete thin layer of mucous membrane occluding the opening of the vagina.
❖ Vestibular gland
These are situated on each side near the vaginal orifice and secrete mucus to keep the vagina moist.

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2. Internal Genitalia
This lies in the pelvic cavity and consists of the vagina, uterus, 2 fallopian or uterine
tubes and 2 ovaries.

➢ Vagina

This is a fibromusculaLK tube lined with stratified squamous epithelium connecting the external
and internal organs of reproduction. It lies between the bladder in front and rectum and anus
behind. Its anterior wall is about 7. 5 cm long and 9.0cm long posteriorly. Structurally, the
vagina has three layers; they are:
Outer layer - Areolar tissue
Middle layer - smooth muscle
Inner layer - stratified squamous epithelium that is thrown into rugae (ridges).
It has secretory glands and is kept moist by the cervical secretions. The PH of the vagina is
acidic (3. 5 - 4.9) due to the presence of lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria which continuously
secrete lactic acid between puberty and menopause. This helps to inhibit the growth of bacteria that
may enter into the vagina.

Its functions includes receptacle for the penis during coitus and elastic passage way through which
the baby passes during childbirth.
The uterus is a hollow muscular pear-shape organ flattened anteroposterioly. It lies in the pelvic
cavity between the urinary bladder and the rectum. Its anterior wall rests partly against the
urinary bladder below forming a pouch with the vagina called vesicouterine pouch. Its size is
about 7.5cm long, 5. 0cm wide and 2.5cm thick. It weights between 30 - 40 g.

The parts of the uterus are the fundus (dome shape part above the inferiorly as the internal OS
where it is continuous with the cervix) and the cervix neck of the uterus (this protrudes through
the anterior, its walls are composed of three layers of tissue; perimetrium, myometrium,
endometrium.
Perimetrium
This is a type of peritoneum distributed differently on the various parts of the uterus.It forms the
vesicouterine pouch anteriorly with the surface of the urinary bladder. Posteriorly it extends
over the fundus,the body and the cervix and forms a pouch with the rectum called the pouch( of
Douglas).

❖ Myometrium
This is the thickest layer of tissue in the uterine wall. It is mass of smooth muscles fibres interlaced
with areolar tissue, blood vessels and nerves.

❖ Endometrium
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this consists of columnar epithelium containing a large number of mucus-secreting but tubular
glands. It has functional layer;
1.Functional layer: it becomes rich in blood vessels in the first half of the menstrual cycle
awaiting fertilization. This layer is shed off during menstruation if the ovum is not
fertilized or implanted.

2.Basal layer: this lies next to the myometrium and is not lost during menstruation. Fresh functional
layer is always regenerated during each cycle.
The uterus is supported in the pelvic cavity by surrounding organ, muscles of the pelvic floor and
ligament that suspend it from the wall of the pelvis. Example; broad and round ligament
uterosacral ligaments etc. function of the uterus includes monthly regular menstrual flow and
keeping of pregnancy till expulsion of the baby.

SECTION OF THE UTERUS

❖ Uterine (Fallopian )Tubes

They are about 10cm long and extend from the sides of the uterus between the body and the
fundus. They lie in the upper free border of the broad ligament and their trumpet - shaped lateral
ends passes through the posterior wall into the peritoneal cavity near the ovaries. The end of each
has a fingerlike projection called the fimbriae. The longest of this is the ovarian fimbria, which is

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in close association with the ovary.
Structurally, outer layer of peritoneum (broad ligament ), middle layer of smooth muscle and inner
layer of ciliated epithelium.
Functions include site for fertilization and movement of ovum from the ovary to
the uterus by peristalsis and ciliary movement.

❖ OVARIES
These are female gonads which produces sex hormones and ova. They lie on the lateral walls of the
pelvis in a shallow fossa. Ovaries are 2.5 -3.5.cm long, 2.0cm wide and 1.0cm thick. Each is held
in position to the uterus by the ovarian ligament at its upper part and to the back by a broad ligament
called mesovarian where blood vessels and nerves passes into the ovary. Structurally, the ovaries
have two layers of tissues;
.i. The medulla - lie in the centre and consists of fibrous tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
ii. cortex - this surrounds the medulla and has a frame work of connective tissue (stroma)
covered with germinal epithelium. It contain ovarian follicles in which ovum is produced. The
ovaries are inactive before puberty and releases ova into the peritoneal cavity every 28 days.
(ovulation ) during child bearing years.
Function of ovaries include production of female gonads and hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
for ovulation.

The Menstrual Cycle

This is a series of changes in females during their reproductive years in every 26 - 30 days. It first
occurrence is termed as menarche.
These changes take place in the ovaries and in the uterine walls as a result of changes in blood
concentrations of hormones. Hormones secreted in the cycle are regulated by negative feedback
mechanisms. The average length of the menstrual cycle is about 28 days and the flow usually last
about 4 days.

A.Menstrual Phase

When the ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate. The functional layer of
endometrium begins to shed when there is a fall in progesterone and estrogen levels. This
consists of secretions from endometrial glands, cells, blood from broken capillaries and the
unfertilized ovum.

B.Proliferative Phase.
Estrogen production stimulates proliferation of the functional layer of the endometrium in
preparation for the reception of a fertilized ovum. This brings about thickening of the
endometrium; very vascular and rise in mucus - secreting glands. This phase ends immediately after
ovulation occurs and estrogen production levels also declines.

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(C)Secretary Phase
This happens immediately after ovulation and the endometrium becomes edematous with
secretary glands secreting more watery mucus to assist in the passage of spermatozoa through the
uterus to the fallopian tubes where the ovum is usually fertilized.

Around the same time of ovulation, cervical mucus becomes thin, elastic and watery with increased
body temperature immediately after ovulation.
If the ovum is not fertilized menstruation occurs and new cycle begins.
If fertilization occurs, then there is no breakdown of the endometrium and no menstruation. The
zygote then travels through the uterine tubes to the uterus and embedded in the walls, and start
producing human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). This hormone enables the corpus luteum to
secrete more progesterone and estrogen for the first 3 -4 months of pregnancy, thus suppressing
maturation of further ovarian follicles till placenta takes over.
Hint: Read on breast, puberty of girls and menopause.

(B) Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system consists of the testes, spermatic cords, the deferent ducts, seminal
vesicles, ejaculatory duct, prostate glands, urethra and penis.

STRUCTURE OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

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1. Testes

The testes are the reproductive glands of the male and produces spermatozoa. They
are oval in shape and about 4.5cm long, 2.5cm wide and 3.0cm thick. They are
suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords and surrounded by 3 layers of tissue.
The scrotum is a pouch of pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissue and smooth
muscles. It has 2 compartments each of which contains one epididymis and the
testicular end of a spermatic cord.

The scrotum lies below the symphysis pubis, in front of the upper parts of the thighs
and behind the penis with testes in it.
The layers of the testes include tunica vaginalis (outer layer- double membrane and is a down
growth of the abdominal and pelvic peritoneum) tunica albuginea (fibrous covering under the
tunica vaginalis and divides the glandular structure of the testes into lobules) and the tunica
vasculosa ( this consist of a network of capillaries supported by delicate connective tissue).
Structurally, each testis has 200 - 300 lobules and within each lobule are 1 - 4 convoluted loops
called semniferous tubules. Between this tubules are group of interstitial cells (leydig) that
secrete the hormone tester one after puberty. At the upper pole of the testes the tubules combine to
form a single tube which is 6.0m in length. This is repeatedly folded to form a mass called the
epididymis. It leaves the scrotum as the deferent duct (Vas deferent’s) in the spermatic cord.
Blood and lymph vessels passes into the testes in the spermatic cord.

Functions of the testes include production and storage of sperms. They are produced in the
semniferous tubules and stored in the epididymis.

(2)Spermatic Cord
This suspends the testes in the scrotum and each cord contain testicular artery, veins, lymphatic,
a deferent duct and nerves, which come together to form the cord from their various origins in
the abdomen. It extends through the inguinal canal and attached to the testes on the posterior
wall.

(3)The vas Deferens

It is 45cm long and joined by the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory ducts towards the posterior
wall of the bladder.

(4)Seminal Vesicles
These are 2 small fibromuscular pouches also lying in the posterior aspects of the bladder. At its
lower end it opens into a short duct, which joins the vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. Its

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functions includes expelling of seminal fluid during male orgasm (60%) which contains some
nutrients for the sperm as it journeys throuhj the female reproductive tract.

(5)Ejaculatory Ducts
This are formed by the union of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferent and is 2.0cm long each.
They pass through the prostate gland and join the prostatic urethra to the exterior. The
ejaculatory duct carries seminal fluid and spermatozoa to the urethra.

(6)Prostate Gland

This lies in the pelvic cavity in front of the rectum and behind the symphysis pubis and surrounds
the first part of the urethra (prostatic urethra).
Functions include production of milky substance constituting of 30% of semen. Also contain a
clotting enzyme, which thickens the semen in the vagina making it more close to the cervix.

(7)Urethra
The urethra is about 19 - 20cm long and consist of three (3 parts) namely; prostatic urethra
which originates from the urethral orifice of the bladder, the memebraneous urethra, the shortest
and narrowest which ends at the bulb of the penis after passing through the perineum.

(8)Penis
The penis is formed by three (3) cylindrical masses of erectile tissue and smooth muscle. The two
lateral columns are called the corpus cavernosa and the column between them, containing the
urethra is called the corpus spongiosum. The glans penis is the expanded triangular portion at its
tip with a double folded skin surrounding it called the foreskin or prepuce. Parasympathetic
stimulation leads to filling of the spongy erectile tissue with blood and is caused by arteriolar
dilation and vasoconstriction which increases blood flow into the penis and obstructs out flow.
This makes the penis to stand erect and essential for intercourse.

SPERMS
Spermatozoa are produced in the semiferous tubules of the testis and get matured and stored in the
long epididymis and its production is controlled by the hormone FSH from the anterior
pituitary gland.
A matured sperm has a head, body and a whip like tail which is used for motility (movement).
The head contains nucleus (with DNA) and enzymes to assist in the penetration of the ova during
fertilization. The body of the sperm is also packed with mitochondria to serve as fuel as the
sperms journeys through the reproductive tract (female).
During a normal ejaculatory, sperm constitute only about 10% with the remainder 90% been
seminal and prostatic fluids and mucus from the urethra. Semen is alkaline and neutralizes the
acidity of the Vagina. A normal ejaculate of semen is between 2 - 5ml and contains about 40-

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100 million spermatozoa per ml. sperms live for several months and looses their fertility if not used
hence they are reabsorbed by the epididymis.
Assignment; Puberty in males and females, menopause and also the mammary gland (breast).

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Two body systems, the nervous system and the endocrine system, share the responsibility for
maintaining homeostasis.

Whereas the nervous system employs nerve impulses (action potentials) and responds rapidly to
stimuli to adjust body processes, the endocrine system employs hormones and responds more
slowly, though no less effectively

NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISION

The two principal divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord whilst the PNS
consists of cranial nerves that arise from the brain and spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal
cord. Portions of these nerves carry nerve impulses into the CNS while other portions
carry impulses out of the CNS.

The PNS may be subdivided further into a somatic nervous system (SNS) and an autonomic
nervous system (ANS).

Note: Most nerve impulses that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the
CNS.

The SNS consists of (1) sensory neurons that convey information from somatic receptors in the
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head, body wall, and limbs and from receptors for the special senses of vision, hearing, taste, and
smell to the CNS and (2) motor neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles
only. Because these motor responses can be consciously controlled, the action of this part of the
PNS is voluntary.

The ANS consists of (1) sensory neurons that convey information from autonomic sensory
receptors, located primarily in visceral organs such as the stomach and lungs, to the CNS, and (2)
motor neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
glands. Because its motor responses are not normally under conscious control, the action of the
ANS is involuntary.

The motor portion of the ANS consists of two branches, the sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division.

Sympathetic stimulation prepares the body to deal with exciting and stressful situations.
Example, it prepares the body to defend itself in terms of danger and extreme environmental
temperature. In other words, it prepares the body for “fight” or “flight”

Parasympathetic stimulation has the tendency to slow down metabolic activities in the body
except digestion and absorption of food. It goes about its normal duties in a peaceful and quiet
manner and hence, it is termed a “peace maker”. The parasympathetic division takes care of “rest-
and-digest” activities. Examples are,

PARASYMPATHETIC SYMPATHETIC

1. Slows heartbeat 1. Accelerate heartbeat

2. Constrict iris 2. D8ilates iris

3. Stimulates erection 3. induces ejaculation

4. Constrict bronchi 4. Dilate bronchi

5. Stimulates the secretion of saliva 5. inhibits the secretion of saliva

Parasympathetic stimulation leads to filling of the spongy erectile tissue with blood, caused by
arteriolar dilatation and venoconstriction, which increases blood flow into the penis and obstructs
outflow.
The nervous system has three basic functions: (1) sensory, (2) integrative, and (3) motor.

Sensory function: It senses certain changes (stimuli), both within the internal environment (e.g.

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stretching of your stoma0ch and the external environment (e.g. a raindrop landing on your arm.

Integrative function: It analyzes the sensory information, stores some aspects, and makes
decisions regarding appropriate behaviors.

Motor function: It may respond to stimuli by initiating muscular contractions or glandular

secretions.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The numerous glands of the body can be classified as either of two types based on structure and
function: exocrine or endocrine.

Exocrine glands, such as sweat, salivary, and mucous glands, produce secretions that are transported
through ducts to their respective destinations.

The endocrine system includes the organs of the body that secrete hormones directly into body
fluids such as blood. They secrete their products (hormones) into the blood capillaries
surrounding the secretory cells rather than into ducts. They are commonly referred to as the
ductless glands because the hormones are secreted and diffuse directly into the bloodstream.

DIFFERENCES B/N THE ENDOCRINE &NERVOUS SYSTEM

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM

Secretes hormones that are transported to target Transmits neurochemical impulses

via nerve fibers
cells via the blood or by surrounding interstitial
fluid

Causes changes in the metabolic Causes muscles to contract or

glands to secrete hormones
activities in specific cells

Action is relatively slow Action is very rapid

Effects are relatively prolonged Effects are relatively brief

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HORMONE

Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream and they stimulate
the activity of tissue or organ, in other parts of the body. Hormones produced by the pituitary
gland in the head, for example, can act on organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The endocrine glands are:

1 pituitary gland
1 thyroid gland
4 parathyroid glands

2 adrenal (suprarenal) glands

The pancreatic islets(islets of Langerhans)
1 pineal gland or body

1 thymus gland

2 ovaries in the female

2 testes in the male.

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PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus, to which
it is attached by a stalk, the infundibulum.

The pituitary gland has three anatomically and functionally separate portions: the anterior
pituitary, the posterior pituitary and the intermediate lobe.

INTERMEDIATE LOBE

Between these lobes there is a thin strip of tissue called the intermediate lobe and its function
in humans is not known.

ANTERIOR PITUITARY

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ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

The anterior pituitary (anterior lobe), also called the adenohypophysis, is an

up growth of glandular epithelium from the pharynx.

The anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis secretes hormones that regulate a wide

range of bodily activities, from growth to reproduction. Release of anterior pituitary
hormones is stimulated by releasing hormones and suppressed by inhibiting hormones
from the hypothalamus.

Some of the hormones secreted by the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) stimulate or inhibit
secretion by other endocrine glands (target glands) while others have a direct effect on target
tissues.

Hence, the name master gland

ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

GROWTH HORMONE (GH) (SOMATOSTATIN): This is the most abundant

hormone synthesized by the anterior pituitary. This is the most abundant hormone
synthesized by the anterior pituitary. Inhibition of GH secretion occurs by a negative
feedback mechanism when the blood level rises and also when GHRIH (somatostatin)
is released by the hypothalamus.

FUNCTIONS OF THE GH

• It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but especially those in the bones
and skeletal muscles.
• It also regulates aspects of metabolism in many organs, e.g. liver, intestines and
pancreas; stimulates protein synthesis; promotes breakdown of fats; and increases blood glucose
levels

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 PROLACTIN (PRL)
This hormone stimulates milk production (lactation) and has a direct effect on the breasts
immediately after childbirth (parturition). The blood level of prolactin is stimulated by prolactin
releasing hormone (PRH) released from the hypothalamus.

It is lowered by prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH, dopamine) and by an increased blood level of
prolactin. After birth, suckling stimulates prolactin secretion and lactation
ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (CORTICOTROPHIN, ACTH)

Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus promotes the synthesis and
release of ACTH by the anterior pituitary. Secretion is also regulated by a negative feedback
mechanism, being suppressed when the blood level of ACTH rises.

Other factors that stimulate secretion include hypoglycemia, exercise and other stressors, e.g.
emotional states and fever.

THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) OR THYROTROPIN

This hormone is synthesized by the anterior pituitary and its release is stimulated by TRH from the
hypothalamus. It stimulates growth and secretion of thyroid hormones
(triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)).

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FUNCTION OF THE THYROID HORMONE

Breathing
Heart rate
Body weight
Muscle strength
Menstrual cycles
Body temperature
Cholesterol levels

GONADOTROPHINS (SEX HORMONES)

After puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones) are secreted by the anterior pituitary in response
to luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), also known as
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).

In both males and females these are:

Follicle stimulating hormone

(FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Its target organs are the ovaries and testes. In the
ovaries, it stimulates the development of eggs (ova) and the follicles that contain them.

FSH is also involved in the secretion of the hormones oestrogen and progesterone during the
menstrual cycle.
In the testes, it stimulates sperm production

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): In females, it stimulates ovulation (the release of an egg). LH

stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete estrogen and progesterone, hormones important to
pregnancy.

In males, LH also called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) stimulates interstitial cells
of the testes to secrete testosterone.

POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

The posterior pituitary (posterior lobe), also called the neurohypophysis. This is formed from
nervous tissue and consists of nerve cells. Although the posterior pituitary or
neurohypophysis does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two hormones
synthesized by nerve cell bodies of the hypothalamus

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The hormones are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)

FUNCTIONS OF OXYTOCIN

During delivery, oxytocin enhances contraction of smooth muscle cells in the

wall(myometrium) of the uterus.
After delivery, it stimulates milk ejection (“letdown”) from the mammary glands in
response to the mechanical stimulus provided by a suckling infant.

FUNCTIONS OF ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH OR VASOPRESSIN)

The main effect of antidiuretic hormone is to increase water retention by the kidneys,
reduce urine volume, and help prevent dehydration.
ADH also causes constriction of arterioles, which increases blood pressure.This
hormone’s other name, vasopressin, reflects this effect on blood pressure

2. THYROID GLAND

The thyroid gland is situated in the neck in front of the larynx and trachea. It is the largest endocrine
gland; it weighs about 25 g and it is a highly vascular gland.

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It resembles a butterfly in shape and consists of two large lobes, one on each side of the trachea,
connected by a narrow isthmus lying in front of the trachea.

The thyroid cells secrete two main thyroid hormones—T3, or triiodothyronine

and thyroxine, also known as T4 or tetraiodothyronine.

NB: These names refer to the fact that the two hormones contain three (T3) and four (T4)
iodine atoms. Iodine is essential for the formation of the thyroid gland hormones. The
thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from the blood, a process called iodine trapping.

T3 and T4 affect most cells of the body by:

✓ Increasing basal metabolic rate

✓ Regulating metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
✓ Regulate development and growth of especially skeleton and nervous system
✓ Stimulate lipolysis
✓ Stimulate protein synthesis
✓ Increase body temperature (heat production)
✓ Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production

The parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland also called C-cells which are located
in the thyroid gland, secrete the hormone calcitonin.

FUNCTION OF CALCITONIN:

It acts on bone and the kidneys to reduce the blood calcium (Ca2+) level when it is raised
3. PARATHYROID GLANDS
There are four small parathyroid glands, two embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of the
thyroid gland.

The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone).

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The main function of PTH is to increase the blood calcium level when it is low.

4. ADRENAL GLANDS

The two adrenal glands are located one on top of each kidney, which gives them their other name
of suprarenal glands.

It consists of the outer cortex and an inner medulla

ADRENAL CORTEX

The adrenal cortex is the outer layer of the adrenal gland which secretes this group of hormones
respectively.

✓ Glucocorticoids e.g cortisol

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✓ Mineralocorticoids e.g Aldosterone
✓ Sex hormones e.g androgens)

Aldosterone functions are associated with the maintenance of water and electrolyte balance in the
body
Cortisol functions in

✓ Anti-inflammatory effects: Glucocorticoids inhibit white blood cells that participate in

inflammatory responses.
✓ Lipolysis
✓ Depression of immune responses
✓ Protein breakdown

Androgens

In both males and females, the adrenal cortex secretes small amounts of weak androgens.

✓ In both sexes, androgens stimulate the development of pubic and axillary hair at puberty; ✓ In
females, contribute to libido (sex drive) and source of estrogens after menopause., and
they sustain the libido throughout adult life.

ADRENAL MEDULLA

It is the inner layer of the adrenal gland. The cells of the adrenal medulla secrete adrenaline
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline. (Norepinephrine), which collectively are called
catecholamines.

In stressful situations and during exercise, impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate the cells in
the adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline (epinephrine) and nor adrenaline (norepinephrine).

Norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction in the skin, viscera, and skeletal muscles (that is,
throughout the body), which raises blood pressure.

Together they potentiate the fight or flight response after initial sympathetic stimulation by:

✓ Increasing heart rate

✓ Increasing blood pressure
5. PANCREATIC ISLETS

The pancreas is both an exocrine (digestive) gland as well as an endocrine gland. The hormone
producing cells of the pancreas are called islets of Langerhans.

There are three main types of cells in the pancreatic islets:

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✓ Alpha cells: secrete glucagon. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels
✓ Beta cells: secrete insulin .It lowers blood levels of absorbed nutrients when they rise
above normal.
✓ Delta cells: secrete somatostatin (GHRIH). It inhibits the secretion of both insulin and
glucagon

6. PINEAL GLAND

The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located in the brain. It contains special secretory
cells called pinealocytes. These cells synthesize the hormone called melatonin. This
hormone is thought to promote sleepiness.

7. THYMUS GLAND

The thymus gland is located behind the sternum between the lungs. Thymosin is
the hormone secreted by the thymus gland and is required for the development
and maturation of T
lymphocytes

Other Hormone-Producing Organs

1. The gonads

✓ Ovaries secrete oestrogen &

progesterone

✓ Testes secretes testosterone

2. Stomach

✓ Gastrin

3. Small intestine
✓ Secretin
✓ Cholecystokinin

4. Heart
✓ Atrial natriuretic peptide - regulates BP

5. Kidneys
✓ Erythropoietin - stimulates blood cell production

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