MATH1016 Mathematics for Engineers 1

WEEK 1

FUNCTIONS AND INVERSE

FUNCTIONS:
Revision and some new functions

Things I must do:

ˆ Read through these notes before my lecture.

ˆ Do the weekly quiz.

ˆ Look at the workshop questions in preparation for the first workshop in Week 2
(attending less than 80% of workshops results in a fail grade).

Learning outcomes

At the end of this section students should be able to

ˆ Define a function, and determine the domain and range of functions.

ˆ Define a one-to-one function, and calculate inverses of such functions.

ˆ Give examples of common functions and their inverses.

ˆ Manipulate expressions and equations involving logarithms and exponentials.

ˆ Define and graph logarithmic and exponential functions.

ˆ Manipulate expressions and equations involving the following: trigonometric and

inverse trigonometric functions, hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions.

ˆ Define and graph the following functions: trigonometric and inverse trigonometric
functions, hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions.

Functions and inverse functions 1

Summary
1 Functions: basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Domain and range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 One-to-one functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Logarithmic and exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1 Properties of exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Properties of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 Applications of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.6 Change of base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1 Graphs of the trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 The inverse sine function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Other inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.1 Graphs of hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.2 Hyperbolic function identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Inverse hyperbolic functions expressed as logarithms . . . . . . . . . 23

Functions and inverse functions 2

1 Functions: basic concepts

The idea of a function is fundamental to much of mathematics; it’s a notion that enables
understanding of mathematics and of many applications. Functions are about connec-
tions; sometimes they are viewed as just formulas, but often they tell a story.
There are some functions that are particularly important in engineering. Some of these
functions will be revised and others introduced.

1 Functions: basic concepts

Recall that a function from a set D to a set R is a rule that assigns a unique element in
R to each element in D. This is represented in the three diagrams below. The second
diagram does not represent a function because the element x of D has been assigned
more than one element of R. The third diagram does not represent a function because
the element y of D has not been assigned any element of R.

x
y

D R D R D R
An example of a function Not a function Not a function

The notation commonly when y is a function of x is y = f (x). The variable x is called

the independent variable, and the variable y is called the dependent variable.

Example 1.1. Which of the following relationships define y as a function of x?

(a) y = −6x + 1,

(b) x = y 2 − 1.

Solution. Here the context is real numbers, so D = R = R, the set of real numbers.
The equation y = −6x + 1 defines y as a function of x because it gives exactly one real
number for every value of x.
However, x = y 2 − 1 does not define a function; for example, x = 3 has two different
values of y associated to it (y = 2 and y = −2), not a unique value of y.

1.1 Domain and range

The set of all possible values of the independent variable (or elements of the set D) is
called the domain of the function, and the set of all possible values of the dependent
variable (or elements of the set R) is called the range of the function.

Example 1.2. Give the domain and range of the function y = 3x + 1.

Functions and inverse functions 3

2 Inverse functions

Solution. Domain: R, that is, all real values of x, −∞ < x < ∞, or (−∞, ∞).
Range: R, all values of y, that is, −∞ < y < ∞, or (−∞, ∞).

√
Example 1.3. Give the domain and range of the function y = 1 − x.

Solution. Domain: 1 − x ≥ 0, that is, x ≤ 1, or (−∞, 1].

Range: y ≥ 0, that is, [0, ∞).

2
Example 1.4. Give the domain and range of the function y = .
x2 − 1

Solution. Domain: x 6= ±1; range: y > 0 or y ≤ −2.

2 Inverse functions
The inverse of a function f is a function, usually written as f −1 , which “undoes” or
“reverses” f . Only some functions have an inverse.

2.1 One-to-one functions

A function f (x) is said to be one-to-one on a domain D if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .

The diagram on the left is an example of a one-to-one function. The diagram in the right
represents a function which is not one-to-one because two different elements of D are
assigned to the same element of R (see the red arrows).

D R D R
A one-to-one function Not a one-to-one function

Example 2.1. The function y = 21 x2 , shown on the left, is not a one-to-one function
because there are different values of x with the same function value. For example, 2 6= −2,
but f (2) = f (−2) = 2.

2 y = 21 x2 2 y = 21 x + 1

1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2

Functions and inverse functions 4

2 Inverse functions

The function y = 21 x + 1, shown on the right, is a one-to-one function because it is a line

with slope 12 , so keeps going up. This means it’s not possible to have different values of x
with the same y value.
The horizontal line test. If every horizontal line intersects the graph of a function at
most once, then the function is a one-to-one function.
For a function to have an inverse, it must be a one-to-one function. The function defined
by reversing a one-to-one function f is called the inverse of f , denoted by f −1 .
One method for finding the inverse of y = f (x) is
Step 1. Swap x and y
Step 2. Make y the subject.

Example 2.2. Find the inverse of f (x) = 2x − 1.

Solution. Step 1. Swap x and y to obtain x = 2y − 1.

Step 2. Make y the subject.
y = 2x − 1
x+1 2
x = 2y − 1 =⇒ x + 1 = 2y =⇒ = y.
2 x+1
y= 2
Thus, f −1 (x) = x+1 . 1
2
As can be seen from the diagram, the graph of y = 2x − 1
and its inverse y = x+12
are reflections of each other in the line 0 1 2
y = x.

Example 2.3. Find the inverse of the function y = x2 , x ≥ 0, expressed as a function

of x.

Solution. Note that the domain is given by x ≥ 0. In Step 2 this makes it possible to
take the square root.
Step 1. Swap x and y to obtain x√= y 2 .
Step 2. Make y the subject: y = x.
√
Therefore the inverse is f −1 (x) = x.
Definition. Functions f (x) and g(x) are an inverse pair if and only if
f (g(x)) = g(f (x)) = x.

x+1
Example 2.4. Show that f (x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = are an inverse pair.
2

Solution. We find f (g(x)) and g(f (x)):

(2x − 1) + 1 2x
g(f (x)) = g(2x − 1) = = = x and
   2  2
x+1 x+1
f (g(x)) = f =2 − 1 = x + 1 − 1 = x.
2 2
We have shown that f (g(x)) = g(f (x)) = x, therefore f (x) and g(x) are an inverse pair.

Functions and inverse functions 5

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

2x + 1 1 − 3x
Example 2.5. Show that f (x) = and g(x) = are an inverse pair.
x+3 x−2

Solution. We find f (g(x)) and g(f (x)):

 
1 − 3x 2 − 6x + x − 2
2 +1
x−2 x−2 −5x −5 −5x x−2
f (g (x)) =  = = ÷ = × = x,
1 − 3x + 3x − 6

1 − 3x x−2 x−2 x−2 −5
+3
x−2 x−2
 
2x + 1 x + 3 − 6x − 3
1−3
x+3 x+3 −5x −5 −5x x+3
g (f (x)) =  = = ÷ = × = x.
2x + 1 − 2x − 6

2x + 1 x+3 x+3 x+3 −5
−2
x+3 x+3

Hence, f (x) and g(x) are an inverse pair.

Another example of inverse pairs of functions are logarithms to base b and exponential
functions to base b. These functions are studied in the next section.

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

3.1 Properties of exponents

For a 6= 1 and real numbers x and y

1. ax × ay = ax+y
ax
2. = ax−y
ay
1
3. a−x =
ax
4. (ax )y = axy

5. (ab)x = ax bx

6. a0 = 1

7. a1 = a.

2 +3
Example 3.1. Solve 2x = 16 for x.

Solution. First note that 16 = 24 . Using this

2 +3
2x = 24 =⇒ x2 + 3 = 4 =⇒ x2 = 1 =⇒ x = ±1.

√ 2 8x
Example 3.2. Solve ( 2)x = for x.
4

Functions and inverse functions 6

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Solution. Write everything as powers of 2. We get

√ 2 8x 1 2 (23 )x x2 x2
( 2)x = =⇒ (2 2 )x = 2 =⇒ 2 2 = 23x−2 =⇒ = 3x−2 =⇒ x2 −6x+4 = 0.
4 2 2
√
Solving the quadratic equation yields x = 3 ± 5.

3.2 Exponential functions

The function f (x) = bkx is an exponential function with base b. The domain of these
functions is R, all real x. The range is positive real numbers because f (x) > 0.
The graphs of some exponential functions are shown in the diagrams.
y = 3x y = 3−x
y = 10x y = 2x y = 2−x y = 10−x
y = ( 32 )x y = ( 23 )x

4 4

2 2

−2 0 2 4 −4 −2 0 2
When b > 1, f (x) = bx rises more steeply as b gets larger.
The number e. The number e is irrational,
e ≈ 2.7182818284590 . . .
and it is one of the most important mathematical constants. It has many uses in engi-
neering and science.
 n
1
One way of defining e is lim 1 + = e.
n→∞ n

Example 3.3. Suppose the number of bacteria in a culture at time t is given by

y = 500e0.4t
where t is measured in hours.

(a) How many bacteria are present initially?

(b) How many bacteria are present after 10 hours?

Solution. (a) Initially, that is, when t = 0,

y = 500e0.4×0 = 500e0 = 500.
(b) When t = 10, y = 500e0.4×10 = 500e4 ≈ 27300.

Functions and inverse functions 7

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

3.3 Logarithmic functions

Definition. The base b logarithmic function y = logb x is the inverse of the base b
exponential function y = bx where b > 0, b 6= 1. This is the same as saying that

blogb x = x and logb (bx ) = x

and that
y = bx if and only if logb y = x.
The diagram on the left shows the shape of the graphs of y = bx and y = logb x for b > 1.

y = bx y=x

2 y = loge x = ln x

1
y = log10 x
1 2 e3 4
y = logb x
1 −1

−2
1

The two most common logarithmic functions are f (x) = log10 x, often written as just
f (x) = log x (the common logarithm), and f (x) = loge x = ln x (the natural logarithm).
The graph of these functions is in the diagram above right.

Example 3.4. The expression is each row of the table are equivalent. Fill in the table.

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

53 = 125 log5 125 = 3
2
Solution. 83 = 4 log8 4 = 23
3−2 = 1
log3 19 = −2


9
e4 ≈ 54.60 ln 54.60 ≈ 4

3.4 Properties of logarithms

1. logb (xy) = logb x + logb y

 
2. logb xy = logb x − logb y

3. logb b = 1
4. logb 1 = 0
5. logb x1 = − logb x

6. logb xn = n logb x

Functions and inverse functions 8

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Example 3.5. Express logb x3 + 3 logb x as a single logarithm.

Solution. Using the properties above

logb x3 + 3 logb x = 3 logb x + 3 logb x = 6 logb x.

Example 3.6. Express logb (2xy) − logb x − logb y as a single logarithm.

Solution. Using the properties above

logb (2xy) − logb x − logb y = logb 2 + logb x + logb y − logb x − logb y = logb 2.

Example 3.7. Solve 2 log10 x − 4 = 0.

Solution. For this question we use blogb x = x with b = 10.

Firstly, from 2 log10 x − 4 = 0 we get log10 x = 2. From here
log10 x = 2 =⇒ 10log10 x = 102 =⇒ x = 102 = 100.

Example 3.8. Solve for x if 12 log9 x + 6 = 0.

Solution. We will use blogb x = x with b = 9.

1 1 1 1
12 log9 x = −6 =⇒ log9 x = − =⇒ 9log9 x = 9− 2 =⇒ x = √ = .
2 9 3

Example 3.9. Solve 105x+3 = 195 for x.

Solution. Start by using the first exponent property.

105x+3 = 195 =⇒ 105x × 103 = 195
195
=⇒ 105x = = 0.195
1000
=⇒ log10 105x = log10 (0.195)
=⇒ 5x = log10 (0.195)
log10 (0.195)
=⇒ x = .
5

Example 3.10. Solve 1

2
= e−0.000425t for t.

Solution. Begin by taking logs to base e of both sides.

 
1
ln = ln e−0.000425t = −0.000425t.
2
ln 12
Therefore t = .
−0.000425

Functions and inverse functions 9

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

3.5 Applications of logarithms

Example 3.11. The pH scale for measuring the acidity of a solution is a base 10 loga-
rithmic scale. The pH value (hydrogen potential) of the solution is the common logarithm
of the reciprocal of the solution’s hydronium ion concentration, [H3 O+ ]:
 
1
pH = log10 = − log10 [H3 O+ ].
[H3 O+ ]
The hydronium ion concentration is measured in moles per litre. The cerebrospinal fluid
in the brain has a hydronium ion concentration of about [H3 O+ ] = 4.8 × 10−8 moles per
litre. What is the pH of this fluid?

Solution. Using the formula given for the pH

pH = − log10 4.8 × 10−8

= − log10 (4.8) + log10 10−8




= − [log10 (4.8) − 8 log10 10]

= − [log10 (4.8) − 8]
= − log10 (4.8) + 8
≈ 7.31.

Example 3.12. If I is the intensity of sound in watts per square metre, the decibel
level of the sound is given by
Sound level = 10 log10 I × 1012 dB

where dB means decibels.

By what factor k do you have to multiply the intensity I of the sound from your audio
amplifier to add 10 dB to the sound level?

Solution. Let S be the original sound level, so

S = 10 log10 I × 1012 dB.

Add 10 to the left-hand side and multiply the intensity by k.

S + 10 = 10 log10 kI × 1012 .

Use the first equation to eliminate S from the second equation.

10 log10 I × 1012 + 10 = 10 log10 kI × 1012

log10 I × 1012 + 1 = log10 kI × 1012 .

Expanding gives
log10 I + log10 1012 + 1 = log10 k + log10 I + log10 1012 ,
then simplifying gives
1 = log10 k =⇒ k = 101 = 10.
Therefore, the intensity I must be multiplied by a factor of 10.

Functions and inverse functions 10

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Example 3.13. Measured on the Richter scale, the magnitude of an earthquake of

intensity I is defined to be  
I
R = log
I0
where I0 is a minimum level for comparison.
(a) How many times I0 was the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, whose magnitude was
8.3 on the Richter scale?
(b) How many times more intense was the 1906 San Francisco earthquake than the 1999
western Turkey earthquake, R = 7.8?

 
Solution. (a) R = 8.3 and R = log II0 , so
 
I I
8.3 = log =⇒ 108.3 = =⇒ I = 108.3 × I0 .
I0 I0
The earthquake was 108.3 times more intense than the comparison intensity I0 .
 
(b) For the 1999 western Turkey earthquake R = 7.8 = log II0 . Therefore this earth-
quake had intensity 107.8 × I0 .
Comparing the intensities of both earthquakes,
108.3
7.8
= 100.5 ≈ 3.2.
10
So, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was about 3.2 times more intense than the 1999
western Turkey earthquake.

Example 3.14. The charge q on a capacitor is given by q = q0 1 − e−at , where q0 is

the initial charge, a is a constant, and t is the time. Solve for t.

Solution. Make t the subject of q = q0 (1 − e−at ).

q
1 − e−at =
q0
−at q
e =1−
q
 0 
−at

q
ln e = ln 1 −
q0
 
q
−at = ln 1 −
q
 0 
1 q
t = − ln 1 − .
a q0

Example 3.15. The electric current I (in amps A) in a circuit containing a resistor
measuring R Ω, an inductor measuring L H, and a voltage source measuring E V is given
by
E Rt

I= 1 − e− L .
R
Find t if I = 0.750, E = 6.00, R = 4.50, and L = 2.50.

Functions and inverse functions 11

3 Logarithmic and exponential functions

 4.5t

Solution. Substituting the given values into the equation gives 0.75 = 6
4.5
1 − e− 2.5 .
4.5t 4.5t
Simplifying gives 0.75×4.5
6
= 1 − e− 2.5 =⇒ 1 − 0.75×4.5
6
= e− 2.5 .
0.75×4.5
= − 4.5t


Take logs to base e of both sides: ln 1 − 6 2.5
.
2.5 × ln 1 − 0.75×4.5


6
Therefore t = ≈ 0.459 seconds.
−4.5

3.6 Change of base

The two most common logarithms are those to base 10, called common logarithms (on
your calculator as “log”), and those to base e, called the natural logarithms and written
as “ln” or“loge ”. To calculate logs to any other base for example, the binary logarithm
which has base 2 and is used in computer science, we need to change the base to 10 or
to e.
Recall that if u = logb x, then bu = x.
Taking logs to base a of both sides of bu = x gives

loga (bu ) = loga x

u loga b = loga x
loga x
u= .
loga b

Therefore,
loga x
logb x = .
loga b

Example 3.16. Find log3 8 correct to 2 decimal places.

log 8 ln 8
Solution. log3 8 = ≈ 1.89 (log means log10 ). Alternatively, log3 8 = ≈ 1.89.
log 3 ln 3

Example 3.17. Find log20 7 correct to 2 decimal places.

ln 7 log 7
Solution. log20 7 = ≈ 0.65. Or, log20 7 = ≈ 0.65.
ln 20 log 20
Challenge Problem. The police discover a murder victim at 6:00 am. The body
temperature of the victim is measured then and found to be 25◦ C. A doctor arrives on
the scene 40 minutes later and measures the body temperature again, finding it to be
22◦ C. The room temperature remains constant at 15◦ C.
If the cooling process is modelled by the equation θ = θ0 e−kt where θ is the excess
temperature over the room temperature, estimate the time of death of the victim.

Solution. Answer: 4:32 am (you do the working).

Functions and inverse functions 12

4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision

4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision

Example 4.1. Complete the ratios from the triangle.
a
sin θ = cos θ = c
c
b tan θ = sec θ = c
a
θ cot θ = cosec θ =
a

Example 4.2. Conversion between degrees and radians; fill in the table.

Degrees Radians
180◦ π
30◦ π
6
45◦ π
4
60◦ π
3
90◦ π
2

Example 4.3. Fill in the missing numbers.

sin 180◦ = cos π = −1
π π
= tan cosec = 1
2 2
π π
cot = sec = 2
6 3
You need to know your exact trigonometric ratios.

Example 4.4. Fill in the blank spaces.

π 
cos − θ = sin(θ) cos(−θ) = cos(θ) sin(−θ) = − sin(θ)
2
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ cosec2 θ = 1 + cot2 θ

sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b cos(a + b) = cos a cos b − sin a sin b

1 + cos 2θ 1 − cos 2θ
cos2 θ = sin2 θ =
2 2
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
You need to know your complementary angle results, even and odd functions, Pythagorean
identities, angle sum and double angle formulae, etc. Also, angles of any magnitude
(remember “All Stations to Central”?), Sine Rule, Cosine Rule, and formulae for the area
of a triangle, for arc lengths and areas of sectors and segments.

Functions and inverse functions 13

4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision

4.1 Graphs of the trigonometric functions

y y
1 y = cos(x) 1 y = sin(x)
x x
−3π −π −π π π 3π 2π −3π −π −π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
−1 −1

y = cos x domain: −∞ < x < ∞ y = sin x domain: −∞ < x < ∞

range: −1 < y < 1 range: −1 < y < 1
period: 2π period: 2π

y y
4 4

2 y = tan(x) 2 y = sec(x)

x x
−3π −π −π π π 3π 2π −3π −π −π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

−2 −2

−4 −4

y = tan x domain: x 6= ± π2 , ± 3π
2
,... y = sec x domain: x 6= ± π2 , ± 3π
2
,...
range: −∞ < y < ∞ range: y ≤ −1 and 1 ≤ y
period: π period: 2π

y y
4 4

2 2
y = cosec(x) x y = cot(x) x
−3π −π −π π π 3π 2π −3π −π −π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

−2 −2

−4 −4

y = cosec x domain: x 6= 0, ±π, ±2π, . . . y = cot x domain: x 6= 0, ±π, ±2π, . . .

range: y ≤ −1 and 1 ≤ y range: −∞ < y < ∞
period: 2π period: π

4.2 The inverse sine function

Consider the graph of the sine function. Clearly, this function is not a one-to-one function.
However, if we restrict the domain to −π2
≤ x ≤ π2 , then this is a one-to-one function, so
on this domain sin x has an inverse, the inverse sine function, written as sin−1 x.

Functions and inverse functions 14

4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision

y
To the right is the graph of x = sin y (the dashed and the solid
parts). 3π
2
The graph of y = sin−1 x is the solid blue section. It has domain π
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and range − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 .
π
The graph of y = sin−1 x is part of the graph of x = sin y. 2
x
Note that sin−1 x is sometimes written as arcsin x.
−1 1
Note also that sin−1 x is not the reciprocal of sin x. −π
2
For −π
2
≤ y ≤ π2 the statements “y = sin−1 x” and “x = sin y”
are equivalent. −π

If y = sin−1 x, then x = sin y is certainly true. However, if −3π

2
x = sin y, then y = sin−1 x is true if and only if −π
2
≤ y ≤ π2 .

4.3 Other inverse trigonometric functions

None of the trig functions are one-to-one, so like the sine function, none of these has an
inverse. In each case, like the sine function, the domain is restricted to obtain a one-to-one
function. The one-to-one functions each has an inverse.
The function y = cos x with domain 0 ≤ x ≤ π has an inverse, which is written y =
cos−1 x = arccos x.
For 0 < y < π the statements “y = cos−1 x” and “x = cos y are equivalent.
The function y = tan x with domain − π2 < x < π
2
has an inverse, which is written
y = tan−1 x = arctan x.
For − π2 < y < π
2
the statements “y = tan−1 x” and “x = tan y are equivalent.
The graphs of all the inverse trig functions are shown in the next section, together with
the domain and range of each function.

4.4 Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions

π y π y
y = sin−1 (x)
π π
2 2

y = cos−1 (x) x x
−1 1 −1 1
−π −π
2 2

y = cos−1 x domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 y = sin−1 x domain: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

range: 0 ≤ y ≤ π range: − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2

Functions and inverse functions 15

4 Trigonometric functions—some very necessary revision

π y π y

π y = tan−1 (x) π y = sec−1 (x)

2 2

x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−π −π
2 2

y = tan−1 x domain: −∞ < x < ∞ y = sec−1 x domain: x ≤ −1 and 1 ≤ x

range: − π2 < y < π2 range: 0 < y < π, y 6= π2

π y π y

π π
2 2 y = cot−1 (x)
−1
y = cosec (x)
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−π −π
2 2

y = tan−1 x domain: x ≤ −1 and 1 ≤ x y = sec−1 x domain: −∞ < x < ∞

range: − π2 < y < π2 , y 6= π2 range: 0 < y < π

√ 
Example 4.5. Given that α = sin−1 2
3
, find cosec α, cos α, sec α, tan α, and cot α.

Solution. The range of sin−1 is − π2 ≤ y ≤ π2 , so − π2 ≤ α ≤ π2 .

√ ! √
−1 3 3
Now α = sin =⇒ sin α = .
2 2
As sin α > 0 and sin α 6= 1, we have 0 < α < π2 . So we can draw√ a α
2 a
right-angled triangle with α as one angle, and so that sin α = 23 .
Such a triangle is shown.
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, we find a = 1. Therefore √
√ 3
cos α = 2 , tan α = 3, cosec α = sin1 α = √23 , sec α = cos1 α = 2 and
1

cot α = tan1 α = √13 .

Example 4.6. Find the value of cos tan−1 9



40
.

Solution. Let α = tan−1 9 9

40
, so 40
= tan α.
As tan α is positive we have 0 < tan α < π2 , so we can draw a right-
angled triangle and use Pythagoras’ Theorem to conclude that the
41 9
hypotenuse is 41. Hence,
  
9 40 α
−1
cos tan = cos α = . 40
40 41

Example 4.7. If α = sin−1 x for 0 < x < 1, find tan α.

Functions and inverse functions 16

5 Hyperbolic Functions

Solution. Here α = sin−1 x, so sin α = x = x1 .

Using Pythagoras’ Theorem,
√
a2 + x2 = 1 =⇒ a2 = 1 − x2 =⇒ a = 1 − x2 1 x
Hence α
x x
tan α = =√ . a
a 1 − x2

Example 4.8. For 0 < x < 1, evaluate sin−1 x + cos−1 x.

Solution. Let α = sin−1 x and β = cos−1 x.

Then sin α = x and cos β = x.
Draw the right-angled triangle as shown for α. β
Note that the cosine of the angle which is not π2 or α has cosine x; 1 x
this angle must be β.
α
Therefore α + β = π2 .
This implies that sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 .

Example 4.9. Express x as the subject of the equation y = π

4
− 3 sin−1 x.

Solution.
π
y= − 3 sin−1 x
4
π
3 sin−1 x = − y
4
−1 π y
sin x = −
12  3
π y
x = sin − .
12 3

5 Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic functions are closely related to trigonometric functions, are very useful includ-
ing for some calculus problems and appear in many applications.
Definition. The hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions, denoted by sinh (pro-
nounced “shine”) and cosh (pronounced “cosh”) respectively, are defined by

ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh x = and cosh x = .
2 2

Example 5.1. Using physics and mathematics, it can be shown that the equation of the
curve formed
x by a cable suspended between two points is the hyperbolic cosine function
y = a cosh .
a
The images show a chain and a necklace, both of which have the shape of a hyperbolic
cosine function.

Functions and inverse functions 17

5 Hyperbolic Functions

x
The graph shows y = a cosh for a = 0.5, 1, and 2.
a

7 y
6
5
4 y = 2 cosh( x2 )
3
2 y = cosh(x)
1 1
y= 2 cosh(2x) x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

The complete list of hyperbolic functions is

ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
cosh x ex + e−x
coth x = = x
sinh x e − e−x
1 2
sech x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
1 2
cosech x = = x .
sinh x e − e−x

Functions and inverse functions 18

5 Hyperbolic Functions

5.1 Graphs of hyperbolic functions

y y
3 3
2 y = cosh(x) 2
ex 1 y = sinh(x) ex 1 e−x
y= 2 x y= 2 y= 2 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 −x3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 y = −e2 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = sinh x domain: −∞ < x < ∞ y = cosh x domain: −∞ < x < ∞

range: −∞ < y < ∞ range: 1 ≤ y

y y
3 3
2 y = tanh(x) 2 y = sech(x)
1 1
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −1

y = tanh x domain: −∞ < x < ∞ y = sech x domain: −∞ < x < ∞

range: −1 < y < 1 range: 0 < y ≤ 1

y y
3 3
2 2
y = cosech(x)
1 1
x y = coth(x) x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = cosech x domain: x 6= 0 y = coth x domain: x 6= 0

range: y 6= 0 range: y < −1 and 1 < y

The graphs seen so far might make one think that y = cosh x is much like a parabola.
However, if we zoom out, as in the graph below, we see that y = cosh x has a very different
shape to a parabola.

Functions and inverse functions 19

5 Hyperbolic Functions

5,000 y
y = 100x2
4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000
y = cosh x
x
−10 −5 5 10

From the graphs, you can see that the hyperbolic cosine function, for large values of x,
increases much faster than a parabola.

5.2 Hyperbolic function identities

1. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1

2. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x

3. coth2 x − 1 = cosech2 x

4. sinh (x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y

5. cosh (x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y

6. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

7. cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 sinh2 x + 1 = 2 cosh2 x − 1.

Example 5.2. Verify the first identity, that is, cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.

Solution. Use the definitions of sinh and cosh.

2  x 2
e + e−x e − e−x
 x
2 2
cosh x − sinh x = −
2 2
1
(e2x + 2 + e−2x ) − (e2x − 2 + e−2x )
 
=
4
4
= = 1.
4

Example 5.3. Prove the second identity, that is, prove that 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x.

Functions and inverse functions 20

5 Hyperbolic Functions

Solution. Divide both sides of cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 (just proven) by cosh2 x:

cosh2 x − sinh2 x 1 sinh2 x

= =⇒ 1 − = sech2 x
cosh2 x cosh2 x cosh2 x
=⇒ 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x.

The identity can also be proved using the definitions of tanh and sech.
2
e − e−x e − 2 + e−2x
 x  2x 
2
1 − tanh x = 1 − =1−
ex + e−x e2x + 2 + e−2x
(e2x + 2 + e−2x ) − (e2x − 2 + e−2x )
=
e2x + 2 + e−2x
 2
4 2
= x −x 2
= x −x
= sech2 x.
(e + e ) e +e

Example 5.4. Show that sinh (x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y.

Solution. We will prove the result for x + y; the proof for x − y is similar.

RHS = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y

e − e−x e + e−y e + e−x e − e−y
 x  y   x  y 
= +
2 2 2 2
1  x+y
+ ex−y − e−x+y − e−x−y ) + (ex+y − ex−y + e−x+y − e−x−y )

= (e
4
1  x+y
− 2e−x−y

= 2e
4
ex+y − e−(x+y)
= = sinh (x + y) = LHS.
2

Example 5.5. Simplify (sinh 2x + cosh 2x)3 .

Solution. Using the identities sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x and cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x,
we have

sinh 2x + cosh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x + cosh2 x + sinh2 x

= (sinh x + cosh x)2 .

Therefore, (sinh 2x + cosh 2x)3 = (sinh x + cosh x)6 .

e2x − e−2x e2x + e−2x
Alternatively, sinh 2x + cosh 2x = + = e2x .
2 2
3 2x 3 6x
Therefore (sinh 2x + cosh 2x) = (e ) = e .

4x
Example 5.6. Show that sech (ln 2x) = .
4x2 + 1

Functions and inverse functions 21

5 Hyperbolic Functions

Solution. Use the definition of sech.

2 2 2 4x
sech (ln 2x) = ln 2x − ln 2x
= 1 = 4x2 +1
= .
e +e 2x + 2x 2x
4x2 + 1

5.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic functions y = sinh x, y = tanh x, y = coth x, y = cosech x are one-to-one

functions and so have inverses.
The functions y = cosh x and y = sech x, are not one-to-one. However, y = cosh x with
domain x ≥ 0 and y = sech x with domain x ≥ 0 are both one-to-one functions and so
have inverses.
The inverse hyperbolic functions are

y = sinh−1 x,
y = cosh−1 x, x≥1
−1
y = tanh x, −1 < x < 1
−1
y = cosech x, x 6= 0
y = sech−1 x, 0<x≤1
−1
y = coth x, |x| > 1.

5.4 Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic functions with restricted domains are shown below dashed, the graphs of
the inverses, y = sinh−1 x, y = cosh−1 x, y = tanh−1 x, y = sech−1 x, y = cosech−1 x and
y = coth−1 x are shown in blue. A function and its inverse are reflections of each other in
the line y = x (shown in yellow).
y y
3 3
2 y = cosh−1 (x) 2
1 1
y = sinh−1 (x) x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = sinh−1 x domain: −∞ < x < ∞ y = cosh−1 x domain: 1 ≤ x

range: −∞ < y < ∞ range: 0 ≤ y

Functions and inverse functions 22

5 Hyperbolic Functions

y y = tanh−1 (x) y
3 3
2 2 y = sech−1 (x)
1 1
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −1
−2 −2

y = tanh−1 x domain: −1 < x < 1 y = sech−1 x domain: 0 < x ≤ 1

range: −∞ < y < ∞ range: 0 ≤ y

y y
3 3
2 2
1 1
y = cosec−1 (x) x y = cot−1 (x) x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = cosech−1 x domain: x 6= 0 y = coth−1 x domain: x < −1 and 1 < x

range: y 6= 0 range: y 6= 0

5.5 Inverse hyperbolic functions expressed as logarithms

Using algebra, such as that in Example 1., each inverse hyperbolic function can be rewrit-
ten in terms of natural logarithms.
√
1. sinh−1 x = ln x +


x2 + 1
√
2. cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 , x ≥ 1

3. tanh−1 x = 12 ln 1+x


1−x
, −1 < x < 1
 √ 
−1 1+ 1−x2
4. sech x = ln x
, 0<x<1
 √ 
−1 1 1+x2
5. cosech x = ln x
+ |x|
, x 6= 0

6. coth−1 x = 21 ln x+1


x−1
, |x| > 1.

√
Example 5.7. Show that sinh−1 x = ln x +


x2 + 1 .

Functions and inverse functions 23

5 Hyperbolic Functions

ey − e−y
Solution. Let y = sinh−1 x, so x = sinh y = . Hence,
2
1
2x = ey − e−y = ey − y
e
2xey = e2y − 1
e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0.
Solving this quadratic equation in ey :
√
2x ± 4x2 + 4 √
ey = = x ± x2 + 1.
2
 √ 
Taking the positive root (since ey > 0) we get y = ln x + x2 + 1 .

 
−1 1 1+x
Example 5.8. Show that tanh x = ln , −1 < x < 1.
2 1−x

ey − e−y
Solution. Let y = tanh−1 x, so x = tanh y = . Hence
ey + e−y
x(ey + e−y ) = ey − e−y
xey + xe−y = ey − e−y
ey (1 − x) = e−y (1 + x)
1+x
e2y = .
1−x
Taking logs    
1+x 1 1+x
2y = ln =⇒ y = ln .
1−x 2 1−x

 
−1 5
Example 5.9. Express cosh in terms of natural logarithms.
3

Solution. Using the second identity in the list above we obtain

 s  
  2
5 5 5
cosh−1 = ln  + − 1
3 3 3
r !  
5 16 5 4
= ln + = ln + = ln 3.
3 9 3 3

 
−1 5
Example 5.10. Express sinh − in terms of natural logarithms.
12

Solution. Using the first identity in the list above we get

 s 
  2    
−1 5 5 5 5 13 2
sinh − = ln − + − + 1 = ln − + = ln .
12 12 12 12 12 3

Functions and inverse functions 24

5 Hyperbolic Functions

 
−1 3
Example 5.11. Write sech in terms of natural logarithms.
5

Solution. Using the fourth identity in the list above we get

 q

3 2
−1
 
3 1 + 1 − 5

1 + 45
 
9/5

sech = ln 
3
 = ln 3 = ln = ln 3.
5 5 5
3/5

Functions and inverse functions 25

5 Hyperbolic Functions

Do you understand this topic?

1. Define the terms domain and range for the function y = f (x).

2. Do all functions have an inverse? If not, what is the restriction?

3. How do you calculate, if it exists, the inverse of the function y = f (x)?

4. Describe the relationship between the logarithmic and exponential functions.

5. Define e and ln x.

6. Define the six trig ratios.

7. How are radians converted to degrees?

8. Sketch the graphs of the functions y = cos x and y = sin x.

9. Give the definitions of the inverse sine and cosine functions. What are their do-
mains?

10. Give the definitions of the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions.

11. Sketch the inverse hyperbolic cosine function.

Extra questions (full solutions are not provided)

√

1. Simplify ln e × e7/5 .

2. Solve log10 (ex ) = 1 for x.

3. Solve 3x−1 = 2x . Give you answer in exact form.

4. Solve ln x + ln(x − 1) = 1 for x.

5. Solve log8 (x + 2) = 2 − log8 2 for x.

6. The magnitudes (visual brightness), m1 and m2 , of two stars are related to their
(actual) brightness, b1 and b2 , by the equation m1 − m2 = 2.5 log10 ( bb12 ). Solve for b2 .

7. A container of water is heated to 90◦ C and then placed in a room at 0◦ C. The

temperature T of the water is related to the time t (in min) by ln T = ln 90.0−0.23t.
Find T as a function of t.

8. The amount A of caesium-137 (a
dangerous radioactive element) remaining after t

years is given by A = A0 0.5t/30.3 , where A0 is the initial amount.
In the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 caesium-137 (and other contaminants) escaped.
In what year will the caesium-137 that escaped be 10% of the initial amount?

9. Simplify cot sin−1 x .

10. Find the exact value of cos sin−1 12 .

11. Through how many radians does a Ferris wheel with 18 seats move when loading
passengers on the first 12 seats, assuming the loading process started at seat 1?

Functions and inverse functions 26

5 Hyperbolic Functions

12. Sketch the graph of the function y = 2 sin(3x − π).

1
cos−1 d


13. The time t as a function of the displacement d of a piston is given by t = 2πf A
.
Solve for d.

14. Show that cosh x − sinh x = e−x .

15. Show that cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.

16. Determine all solutions of the sinh x = 4. Express your answer as a natural log.

Answers
19
1. 10

2. ln 10
ln 3
3. ln 3−ln 2
√
1± 1+4e
4. x = 2

5. 30
m2 −m1
6. b2 = b1 10 2.5

7. T = 90e−0.23t

8. Approximately 2086.
√
1 − x2
9.
x
√
3
10.
2
11π
11.
9
12. (Sketch required)

13. d = A cos(2πf t)

14. Proof—see lecture notes

15. Proof
√
16. ln(4 + 17)

Functions and inverse functions 27