William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture: Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions

William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture
Chapter 9 Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions
What is an instruction set?

The complete collection of instructions that are understood by a CPU Machine Code Binary Usually represented by assembly codes
Elements of an Instruction
Operation code (Op code)
Do this
Source Operand reference

To this
Result Operand reference

Put the answer here
Next Instruction Reference

When you have done that, do this...
Where have all the Operands gone?

Long time passing. (If you dont understand, youre too young!) Main memory (or virtual memory or cache) CPU register I/O device
Instruction Representation
In machine code each instruction has a unique bit pattern For human consumption (well, programmers anyway) a symbolic representation is used
e.g. ADD, SUB, LOAD
Operands can also be represented in this way

ADD A,B
Instruction Types
Data processing Data storage (main memory) Data movement (I/O) Program flow control
Number of Addresses (a)

3 addresses
Operand 1, Operand 2, Result a = b + c; May be a forth - next instruction (usually implicit) Not common Needs very long words to hold everything
Number of Addresses (b)

2 addresses
One address doubles as operand and result a = a + b Reduces length of instruction Requires some extra work
Temporary storage to hold some results
Number of Addresses (c)

1 address
Implicit second address Usually a register (accumulator) Common on early machines
Number of Addresses (d)

0 (zero) addresses
All addresses implicit Uses a stack e.g. push a push b add pop c c = a + b
How Many Addresses

More addresses
More complex (powerful?) instructions More registers
Inter-register operations are quicker
Fewer instructions per program
Fewer addresses
Less complex (powerful?) instructions More instructions per program Faster fetch/execution of instructions
Design Decisions (1)

Operation repertoire
How many ops? What can they do? How complex are they?
Data types Instruction formats

Length of op code field Number of addresses
Design Decisions (2)

Registers
Number of CPU registers available Which operations can be performed on which registers?
Addressing modes (later) RISC v CISC
Types of Operand
Addresses Numbers
Integer/floating point
Characters
ASCII etc.
Logical Data
Bits or flags
(Aside: Is there any difference between numbers and characters? Ask a C programmer!)
Pentium Data Types

8 bit Byte 16 bit word 32 bit double word 64 bit quad word Addressing is by 8 bit unit A 32 bit double word is read at addresses divisible by 4
Specific Data Types

General - arbitrary binary contents Integer - single binary value Ordinal - unsigned integer Unpacked BCD - One digit per byte Packed BCD - 2 BCD digits per byte Near Pointer - 32 bit offset within segment Bit field Byte String Floating Point
Pentium Floating Point Data Types

See Stallings p324
Types of Operation
Data Transfer Arithmetic Logical Conversion I/O System Control Transfer of Control
Data Transfer
Specify
Source Destination Amount of data
May be different instructions for different movements

e.g. IBM 370
Or one instruction and different addresses

e.g. VAX
Arithmetic
Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide Signed Integer Floating point ? May include
Increment (a++) Decrement (a--) Negate (-a)
Logical
Bitwise operations AND, OR, NOT
Conversion
E.g. Binary to Decimal
Input/Output
May be specific instructions May be done using data movement instructions (memory mapped) May be done by a separate controller (DMA)
Systems Control
Privileged instructions CPU needs to be in specific state
Ring 0 on 80386+ Kernel mode
For operating systems use
Transfer of Control
Branch
e.g. branch to x if result is zero
Skip
e.g. increment and skip if zero ISZ Register1 Branch xxxx ADD A
Subroutine call
c.f. interrupt call
Foreground Reading
Pentium and PowerPC operation types Stallings p338 et. Seq.
Byte Order (A portion of chips?)

What order do we read numbers that occupy more than one byte e.g. (numbers in hex to make it easy to read) 12345678 can be stored in 4x8bit locations as follows
Byte Order (example)

Address 184 185 186 186 Value (1) 12 34 56 78 Value(2) 78 56 34 12
i.e. read top down or bottom up?
Byte Order Names

The problem is called Endian The system on the left has the least significant byte in the lowest address This is called big-endian The system on the right has the least significant byte in the highest address This is called little-endian
StandardWhat Standard?
Pentium (80x86), VAX are little-endian IBM 370, Moterola 680x0 (Mac), and most RISC are big-endian Internet is big-endian
Makes writing Internet programs on PC more awkward! WinSock provides htoi and itoh (Host to Internet & Internet to Host) functions to convert

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William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture

Chapter 9 Instruction Sets: Characteristics and Functions

What is an instruction set?

Source Operand reference

Result Operand reference

Next Instruction Reference

Where have all the Operands gone?

Operands can also be represented in this way

Number of Addresses (a)

Number of Addresses (b)

Number of Addresses (c)

Number of Addresses (d)

How Many Addresses

Fewer instructions per program

Design Decisions (1)

Data types Instruction formats

Design Decisions (2)

Addressing modes (later) RISC v CISC

Pentium Data Types

Specific Data Types

Pentium Floating Point Data Types

May be different instructions for different movements

Or one instruction and different addresses

For operating systems use

Byte Order (A portion of chips?)

Byte Order (example)

i.e. read top down or bottom up?

Byte Order Names

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