The document discusses various principles and methods of transduction, or converting one form of energy into another. It describes several types of energy conversion including photovoltaic cells, thermocouples, electromagnetic induction, and the Hall effect. Resistive, piezoelectric, and piezoresistive transducers are discussed as well as their applications in strain gauges, pressure sensors and accelerometers. Optical, ultrasonic, and various temperature measurement techniques such as thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and pyrometers are also summarized.
The document discusses various principles and methods of transduction, or converting one form of energy into another. It describes several types of energy conversion including photovoltaic cells, thermocouples, electromagnetic induction, and the Hall effect. Resistive, piezoelectric, and piezoresistive transducers are discussed as well as their applications in strain gauges, pressure sensors and accelerometers. Optical, ultrasonic, and various temperature measurement techniques such as thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and pyrometers are also summarized.
The document discusses various principles and methods of transduction, or converting one form of energy into another. It describes several types of energy conversion including photovoltaic cells, thermocouples, electromagnetic induction, and the Hall effect. Resistive, piezoelectric, and piezoresistive transducers are discussed as well as their applications in strain gauges, pressure sensors and accelerometers. Optical, ultrasonic, and various temperature measurement techniques such as thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and pyrometers are also summarized.
The document discusses various principles and methods of transduction, or converting one form of energy into another. It describes several types of energy conversion including photovoltaic cells, thermocouples, electromagnetic induction, and the Hall effect. Resistive, piezoelectric, and piezoresistive transducers are discussed as well as their applications in strain gauges, pressure sensors and accelerometers. Optical, ultrasonic, and various temperature measurement techniques such as thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, and pyrometers are also summarized.
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MI 362
Measurement and Instrument
Lecture 19
24/2/2014
Principle of Transduction
Usually quantity to be measured
converted into electrical quantity Sensor Technologies Energy Conversion Resistive transducers Current transducers
Energy Conversion
Photovoltaic Cell: incident light into electric
energy light falls on junction between dissimilar materials create a potential difference between the materials. potential difference is function of incident flux. open circuit voltage saturates at low intensities While, short-circuit current work linearly over large ranges of incident light.
Silicon based devices:
provide large amounts of current used as power source
Has large capacitance: slow response
Energy Conversion
Thermocouple: converts thermal energy
into electrical energy.
voltage difference between two wires
proportional to the temperature at the junction-Seebeck effect
different metal combinations have
different voltage difference.
Energy Conversion
Electromagnetic: conductor is moved in a magnetic field Voltage induced in conductor proportional to rate at which conductor moves electrical generator, loudspeaker
Energy Conversion
Hall Effect:
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field. voltage develops perpendicular to the direction of current and magnetic field. output signal is a function of magnetic field density automotive systems: angular position of crank shaft for firing angle of the spark plugs, position of car seats and seat belts, air-bag control, wheel speed detection for anti-lock braking system,
MI 362 Measurement and Instrument
Lecture 20
24/2/2014
Resistive
Change in the resistance of a device as
some physical parameter is changed: R=L/A Strain gauge, thermistor, photoconductive transducer thermistor and photoconductive transducer rely on changing concentration of charge carriers
Resistive
Thermistor: based on semiconductors concentration of charge carriers changes with change in temperature rapid decrease in resistivity as temperature increases Excellent for highly sensitive temperature measurements (down to k-10-4 K. useful in the range of -100 0C through to +300 C
Resistive
Photo-conductive: or photoresistors Light of right wavelength can change the carrier concentration in a semiconductor by a large factor incident light must have enough energy to promote the electrons across the band-gap of the material.
Strain Gauge (Will discuss in detail later)
Piezo-electric
produce an output voltage when force is
applied to them used as ultrasonic receivers and also displacement transducers, acceleration, force and pressure. Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials (Quartz) asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied causes a reorientation of electric charges within the material, resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative charges.
diffused into n-type base. Resistance varies when the sensor is compressed or stretched. Used as strain gauge higher gauge factor than metal wire or foil gauges reduced measurement uncertainty (0.1%)
pressure sensors, accelerometers.
Intake pressure Measurement (Kistler)
high accuracy, rugged pressure sensor for the measurement of absolute pressures
Optical Sensors
based on the modulation of light travelling between a light
source and a detector Light sources: tungsten-filament, laser diodes and LEDs
Detector: photocells (cadmium sulphide or cadmium
selenide), phototransistors and photodiodes.
Visible light: prone to interference from sun and other sources.
infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred.
photoconductive devices, whose resistance is reduced according to
the intensity of light to which they are exposed. Photocells and phototransistors are particularly sensitive in the infrared region
commonly used to measure proximity, translational motion,
rotational motion and gas concentration (FTIRs).
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry for combustion analysis
Ultrasonic Trasnducers
Ultrasound: sound above 20 kHz
Transmitter and receiver of ultrasonic wave. measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel between the transmitter and receiver, or, alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted wave. The most common form of ultrasonic element is a piezoelectric crystal contained in a casing
operate interchangeably as either a transmitter or receiver.
These are available with operating frequencies that vary between 20 kHz and 15 MHz.
Ultrasound imaging, Non-destructive testing
proportion of energy reflected being a function of the materials either side of the interface (water, fat, muscle, bone, crack)
Temperature Measurement
Four of the most common methods to
measure temperature are: Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic strips, etc.) Thermojunctive (thermocouples). Thermoresistive (RTDs and thermistors). Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers).
Heat Transfer
Conduction, convection or radiation
Conduction Loading error in conduction Conductance and resistance, contact resistance High conductance gel or oil for better heat transfer Transient: lumped model, time constant, delays
Convection: Low for gases and high for liquids Dynamic heating due to viscous dissipation Temperature read is basically the stagnation temp. Encapsulation to protect the element from environment: error due to lateral conduction
Heat Transfer
Radiation: instrument immersed into a
medium will loose heat to wall through radiation Would lead to measurement error Radiation shields can decrease error Elevating wall temperature by thermal insulation
MI 362 Measurement and Instrument
Lecture 21
3/3/2014
Mechanical Temperature Measurement
change in temperature => mechanical motion (thermal
expansion)
Liquid-in-glass thermometer :
mercury or some kind of alcohol is used for the liquid.
Bimetallic strip thermometer
can use liquids, solids, or even gases
Two dissimilar metals are bonded together into what is called a
bimetallic strip: Different thermal expansion => strip curls home thermostats, arm of a switch between electrical contacts. In oven temperature control: bimetallic strip attached to a dial that is calibrated into a temperature scale
Thermo-junctive Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple: Is a thermoelectric device
that converts thermal energy into electrical energy Seebeck effect two metal wires joined together to form a bead This bead can be made by welding using an arc Connecting wires create undesired junctions Due to weak signal=> sensitive to electrical noise
EMF vs Temperature Characteristic
Types of Thermocouples
Standard thermocouples have been assigned both a
letter and a color
J Type: black, iron and constantan (an alloy of 45%
nickel and 55% copper.) T-Type: blue, copper and constantan K-Type: yellow, chromel (alloy of 10% chromium and 90% nickel.) and alumel
Type K thermocouples are the most popular variety
in use today. digital multimeters (DMMs) can measure temperature by plugging in type K thermocouple with standard connections Tables for T-mV for each thermocouple are available and interpreted
Practical Consideration
Should not be mounted to pick
mechanical strain
Encapsulated and sheathed thermocouples have
large time constant and slow response Due to weak signal=> sensitive to electrical noise
Thermopile
several thermocouples connected in
series output voltage increases significantly. increased sensitivity. With enough sensing junctions, thermopile can generate useful voltages
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
change in temperature causes the
electrical resistance of material to change.
resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
Thermistors
RTD: long thin metal wire (usually platinum) wound in a coil or an etched grid on a substrate, much like a strain gage
Notice there are three wires
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
The resistance of the most common
RTD is 100 at 0oC. For small temperature differences and better precision: wheat stone bridge circuit
2-wire, 3-wire
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
two-wire RTD bridge circuit:
Lead wires can cause errors
two lead wires in RTD bridge circuit this doubles the error
three-wire RTD bridge Circuit:
and Arm-3 are same, lead
resistances cancel each other out, eliminating the error. Example: If lead wire resistance in Arm-2
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
Since V is measured using a device with
large input impedance, no current flows in the middle lead wire: its resistance does not affect.
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
Thermistor:
similar to an RTD, but a semiconductor
material Unlike RTDs, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature. larger sensitivity than RTD Nonlinear More accurate than RTD and thermocouple Not for very high temperatures
labelled by their resistance at 25 0C.
type 2252 (2252 at 25 0C), type 5000 (5000 at 25 0C).
Thermo-Resistive Temperature Measurement
Thermistor:
MI 362 Measurement and Instrument
Lecture 22
4/3/2014
Semi-Invasive and Non-Invasive
Temperature Measurement
Heat sensitive paints and coatings
Radiative pyrometry : Radiative properties of object change with temperature Very high temperatures can be measured infrared pyrometers and optical pyrometers
Pyrometers
Infrared pyrometer:
radiation detector detects the amount of infrared
radiation temperature of a hot surface by measuring temperature of detector detector itself is usually a thermopile. emissivity of object must be known for accurate temperature measurement displayed temperature, Tind, is the temperature of a radiating object with an emissivity of 0.95.
Pyrometers
Optical pyrometer : An optical pyrometer is useful for measuring very high temperatures of things that glow internal wire through which electrical current is passed until it glows The temperature of the glowing wire is calibrated as a function of the supplied current Inference: comparing the glowing wire to the glow (optical radiation) from a hot object Same temperature: glow are of same colour.
Liquid Thermo chromic Crystals
exhibit brilliant changes in colour over
discrete temperature bands liquid crystal material selectively reflects incident light within a certain band of wavelengths
Radiometer
measures a source temperature by
measuring the voltage output from a thermopile detector Also used in measurement of total solar radiation incident upon a surface.
Infrared Thermometry
Temperature and perceived colour
Types: spectral band thermometers total radiation thermometers thermal imagers scanning an infrared radiation detector across an object temperature distribution across the object is produced.
Infrared Thermometry
Spectral band thermometers:
measure radiant energy across a narrow waveband
devices which use silicon or germanium detectors. short-wavelength thermometers, 0.5 and 2 m. short wavelengths (highly sensitive): rate of change of radiant energy with temperature is high (up to 23%/C)
Total radiation thermometers:
measure radiant energy over a broad waveband
(several micrometres). used for low-temperature measurements where the energy emitted is relatively low.
Thermal Imaging
Array of infrared detectors
Absorption/Emission Spectroscopy
Temperature distribution in flames and gases at
high temperatures atoms emit electromagnetic radiation band of wavelengths emitted from a particular species or substance is known as the emission spectrum atoms with electrons in their ground state can absorb electromagnetic radiation: absorption spectrum Temperature is evaluated by fitting the observed spectrum to a theoretical model Temperature is calculated from ratio of heights of two spectral lines utilizing Boltzmann distribution The typical uncertainty for these
Heat Flux Measurement
Temperature difference
Heat flux is proportional to difference in Temperature at
discrete points
Calorimetric methods heat balance applied to region of the sensor temporal measurement of temperature related to heat flux
Energy supply or removal
heater or cooler to supply or remove energy from a system heat balance to relate temperature measured to heat flux
Mass transfer: Measuring mass transfer in place of heat transfer Heat and mass transfer analogy to infer the heat transfer.
