Osi Model

STANDARDS AND
PROTOCOLS
1. Organizations For Communication
Standards
Standards are developed by cooperation among
standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees

a) International Standards Organization (ISO)
b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
a) International Standards
Organization (ISO)
- A multinational body whose membership is drawn mainly
from the standards creation committees of various
governments throughout the world
- Dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards in a variety field.
- Currently includes 82 memberships industrialized nations.
- Aims to facilitate the international exchange of goods and
services by providing models for compatibility, improved
quality, increased quality, increased productivity and
decreased prices.
b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
- Also known as International Telecommunications
Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
- An international standards organization related to
the United Nations that develops standards for
telecommunications.
- Two popular standards developed by ITU-T are:
i) V series – transmission over phone lines
ii) X series – transmission over public digital
networks, email and directory services and ISDN.
c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
- A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US

government.
- ANSI members include professional societies,
industry associations, governmental and regulatory
bodies, and consumer groups.
- Discussing the internetwork planning and
engineering, ISDN services, signaling, and
architecture and optical hierarchy.
d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
- The largest national professional group involved in
developing standards for computing,
communication, electrical engineering, and
electronics.
- Aims to advance theory, creativity and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics and radio.
- It sponsored an important standard for local area
networks called Project 802 (eg. 802.3, 802.4 and
802.5 standards.)
e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
- An association of electronics manufacturers in

the US.
- Provide activities include public awareness
education and lobbying efforts in addition to
standards development.
- Responsible for developing the EIA-232-D and
EIA-530 standards.
f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
- Concerned with speeding the growth and

evolution of Internet communications.
- The standards body for the Internet itself
- Reviews internet software and hardware.
2. Communication Protocols
Definition
- Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of data communication
between computers on a network.
- These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics

of a network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of
cabling, and speed of data transfer.
- A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

- The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing.
- Protocols are to computers what language is to humans. Since this article

is in English, to understand it you must be able to read English. Similarly,
for two devices on a network to successfully communicate, they must
both understand the same protocols.
Elements of protocol
i) Syntax
The structure or format of the data.
Eg. A simple protocol;
Sender Receiver
data
address address
8 bits 8 bits
64 bits
ii) Semantics
- Refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be interpreted,
and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.
Eg. Does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final of the message?
iii) Timing
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at only 1
Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and data will be largely lost.
Characteristics of protocol
a) Direct / indirect
- communication between two entities maybe direct
or indirect.
i) point-to-point link
- connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices
- the entities in these systems may
communicate directly that is data and
control information pass directly
between entities with no intervening
active agent.
ii) multipoint link
- connection more than two devices can
share a single link
- The entities must be concerned with the
issue of access control and making the
protocol more complex.
b) Monolithic / structured
- The task of communication between entities
on different systems is too complex to be
handled as a unit.
Eg. An electronic mail package running on two
computers connected by a synchronous HDLC
link. To be structured, the package would need
to include all of the HDLC logic. If the
connection were over a packet-switched
network, the packaged would still need the
HDLC logic to attach it to the network.
c) Symmetric / asymmetric
- Symmetric is the most use in
protocol and involve communication
between peer entities.
- Asymmetry may be dictated by the
logic of an exchange (eg; client and
a server process) the desire to keep
one of the entities or systems as
simple as possible.
d) Standard / nonstandard
If K different kinds of information sources have
to communicate with L types of information
receivers, as many as K x L different protocols
are needed without standards and a total of 2
x K x L implementations are required
If all systems shared a common protocol, only
K+L implementations would be needed.
Common protocol used
Protocol Acronym Remarks
Point To Point PPP Used to manage network
communication over a
modem
Transfer/Transmission Control Protocol TCP / IP Backbone protocol. The

most widely used protocol.
Internetwork package exchange IPX Standard protocol for Novell

NOS
NetBIOS extended user interface NetBEUI Microsoft protocol that

doesn’t support routing to
other network. Running only
Windows-based clients.
File transfer Protocol FTP used to send and received

file from a remote host
Simple mail Transfer protocol SMTP Used to send Email over a

network
Hyper text transfer protocol HTTP Used for Internet to send

document that encoded in
HTML
Apple Talk Apple Talk Protocol suite to network

Macintosh computer and a
peer-to-peer network
protocol
OSI Model OSI Layers A way of illustrating how

information functions travels
through network of its 7
layers.
d) Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
- A protocol supplied with UNIX BSD systems.
- Used to transfer routing information between
routers that are located in the same domain.
- RIP uses hop count as a routing metrics.
- Allows the router to determine which path it will use
to send, based on a concept known as distance-
vector routing.
f) Quality Of Service (QoS)
- Network management traffic

- Provide traffic management on network
particularly during times of congestion or
failure.
- QoS also give preferential treatment if a node
does not reach the worth levels during the
packets transmission.

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STANDARDS AND

Standards Creation Committees

- A non-profit corporation not affiliated with US

- An association of electronics manufacturers in

- Concerned with speeding the growth and

- These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics

- A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

- Protocols are to computers what language is to humans. Since this article

Transfer/Transmission Control Protocol TCP / IP Backbone protocol. The

Internetwork package exchange IPX Standard protocol for Novell

NetBIOS extended user interface NetBEUI Microsoft protocol that

File transfer Protocol FTP used to send and received

Simple mail Transfer protocol SMTP Used to send Email over a

Hyper text transfer protocol HTTP Used for Internet to send

Apple Talk Apple Talk Protocol suite to network

OSI Model OSI Layers A way of illustrating how

- Network management traffic

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