EE 174

Fall 2019

Operational Amplifiers
 Table of Contents
• Introduction to Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
• Brief of History
• Op-Amp Internal Circuit
• Op-Amp: Practical, Ideal, symbol and Characteristics Table
• Op-Amp: CMRR, Golden Rules
• Op-Amp: Negative and Positive Feedback
• Gain and Bandwidth (GBP)
• Op-Amp: The Four Amplifier Types
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

• Fundamentals of Op-Amps
• Basic operation
• Gain
• Offset
• CMRR

• Applications
Introduction to Op-Amp
• Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp for short) which name comes from the early days of amplifier design,
when the op amp was used in analog computers to perform various mathematical operations.
• Op-Amp is an active circuit element consisting of transistors, resistors, diodes and capacitor.
• Op-Amp is two-port networks in which the output voltage or current is directly proportional to either
input voltage or current. Four different type of amplifiers exits:
• Voltage amplifier (VCVS): Av = Vo / Vi
• Current amplifier (ICIS): Ai = Io / Ii
• Transconductance amplifier (VCIS): Gm = Io / Vi (Siemens)
• Transresistance amplifier (ICVS): Rm = Vo / Ii
• Op-Amp is ideal device which takes a relatively weak signal (sensor) as an input and produce a much
stronger signal as an output without affecting its other properties.
• Op-Amps are commonly used for both linear and nonlinear applications: Inverting/Non-inverting
Amplifiers, Variable Gains Amplifiers, Summers, Integrators/Differentiators, Filters and Schmitt trigger,
Comparators, A/D converters.
Brief History of Op-Amp

Monolithic IC Op-Amp
• First created in 1963 μA702
by Fairchild Semiconductor
• μA741 created in 1968,
became widely used due to
Vacuum Tube Op-Amps (1930’s-1940’s) Solid State Discrete Op-Amps
its ease of use 8 pin, dual
Dual-supply voltage of +300/-300 V (1960’s) in-line package (DIP)
Output swing +/- 50 volts Dual-supply voltage of +15/-15 V • Further advancements
Open-loop voltage gain of 15,000 to 20,000, Output swing +/- 11 volts include use of field effects
Slew rate of +/- 12 volts/µsecond Open-loop voltage gain of 40,000, transistors (FET), greater
Maximum output current of 1 mA Slew rate of +/- 1.5 volts/µsecond precision, faster response,
George Philbrick Maximum output current of 2.2 mA and smaller packaging
Op-Amp Internal Circuit

Compensation Cap

Op-Amp 3-stages:
• Differential Amplifier (Blue)
• Gain Stage (Magneta)
• Output Stage (Cyan)
• Current Mirrors/Sources (Red)
• Voltage Level Shifter (Green)
Op-Amp: Practical, Ideal, Symbol and Characteristics Table

Non-Inverting Input
Ouput
Inverting Input

Parameter Practical Ideal

Op-Amp Op-Amp
Differential/Open Loop Gain (Aol) 105 - 109 ꚙ
Common Mode Gain (Acm) 10–5 0
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) > 60dB ꚙ
Input Impedance (Ri) (Bipolar-FET) 106 - 1012 ꚙ
Output Impedance (Ro) 100-1kΩ 0
Bandwidth 1-20 MHz ꚙ
Slew rate (SR) A few V/µs ꚙ
Offset Voltage < 10mV 0
Offset Current < 50 nA 0
 Op-Amp: Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) describes the ability of an op-amp to amplify differential signals and
reject common-mode signals. The CMRR is the ratio of the differential-mode gain to common-mode gain.
CMRR = = , normally be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20 log in dB

 Differential Mode Gain (Ad) is defined as:  Common Mode Gain (Acm) is defined as:
Ad = =  VO = Ad Vd where Vd = Acm = < 1 typical for practical op-amp.
Ideally, VOCM = 0, since V+ = V-

 Example: Calculate the CMRR for the circuit with measurement values as follow:
VCM = 1mV, VOCM = 0.1mV and V1 = - 0.2mV, V2 = 0.8mV, VO = 10V
Solution:
AC = = = 0.1, Ad = = = 104  CMRR = = = 105 or 20 log(105) = 100dB

CMRR = 100,000 means that desired signal is amplified 100,000 times more than un-wanted noise signal.
 Op-Amp: Voltage Offset
 Another practical concern for op-amp performance is voltage offset.
The primary cause of the Op-Amp offset is a slight mismatch of the
base-emitter voltages of the differential input stage of the Op-Amp.
For an ideal op-amp with both inputs shorted to ground or when there
is no difference between its inputs would produce output to zero.
 V+ = V– = 0  VO = Aol(V+ – V– ) = 0.
However, for a pratical op-amp  An offset input can drive the output
to either negative or positive saturated level even if the op-amp in
question has zero common-mode gain (infinite CMRR). This deviation
from zero is called offset.
The 741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability by connecting 10kΩ
potentiometer between pin 1 and pin 5. By varying the potentiometer,
output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero
volts. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.

Effect of offset voltage on Op-Amp produces error at the output.

VO = – Vin + (1 +) +

Desired output Error

 Op-Amp: Current Offset
 Ideally, no current flows into the input terminals of an op amp. In practice, there are always two DC input bias currents,
IB+ and IB- . The input bias current IB can vary from 60 fA (1 electron every 3 μs) to tens of μA, depending on the device.

The input bias current, IBIAS, is defined as: IBIAS =

The input offset current, IOS, is defined as: IOS = IB+ − IB–

The input offset voltage, VOS, is defined as: VOS = IOS Rin

The output voltage error, VO(ERROR), is defined as: VO(ERROR) = Av IOS Rin

In order to cancel the effects of the bias current

in an inverting op-amp configuration, a simple
bias compensation resistor, R3, (R3=R1||R2) can
be used to introduce a voltage drop in the non-
inverting input to match and thus compensate VO = R2 (IB– – IB+)
the drop in the parallel combination of R1 and = R2 IOS = 0,
R2 in the inverting input. This minimizes If IB+ = IB– (well-matched)
additional offset voltage error.
Neglecting VOS
 Op-Amp Offset Example
  Determine the output voltage for the open loop differential amplifier Fig #1.
1)
a) vOS- = 5 µVdc, vOS+ = –7 µVdc
b) vOS- = –10 mVdc, vOS+ = 0Vdc
Specifications of the Op-Amp are given below: 
A = 200,000, Ri = 2 MΩ , RO = 75Ω, + VCC = + 15 V, - VEE = - 15 V, and output voltage
swing = ± 14V.
Solution:
a) VO = A(vOS+– vOS-) = 200,000 (– 7 – 5) µV = 2.4 V Fig #1
Remember that vo = 2.4 V dc with the assumption that the dc output voltage is zero
when the input signals are zero.
b) VO = A(vOS+– vOS-) = 200,000 (0 – (– 10mV)) = 2000 V  Saturation VO = 14V
Thus the theoretical value of output voltage vo = 2000 V However, the OPAMP
saturates at ± 14 V.

2) Given circuit in Fig #2 with Vin = 0.25V, R1 = 1kΩ , R2 = 4 kΩ Vos+ = 5mV. Determine
the offset voltage error.
Solution: Fig #2
Use superposition to obtain:
VO = – Vin + (1 +) + = – 4(0.25V) + 5(0.005V) = (– 1 + 0.025)V = – 0.975V
 Op-Amp: Gain and Bandwidth
 Closed loop voltage gain (Acl) of the Op-Amp is defined as: Acl =
Open loop gain:  Gain is measured when no feedback is applied
to the op amp. Open-loop gain (Aol) is very high.
Loop gain: The difference between the open-loop gain and the
closed-loop gain. This is useful information because it gives you
the amount of negative feedback that can apply to the amplifier
system.
Gain versus Bandwidth: Applying feedback will reduce the gain
but increase the bandwidth.
Gain-bandwidth (GBW) product is defined as the op-amp gain
A multiplied by the bandwidth (BW).
The product of the gain and bandwidth are constant.
Acl fcl = Aol fol
The GBW product is also equal to the unity gain frequency
fT = Acl fcl  fcl = fT /Acl where fT is the unity-gain bandwidth. V 
A = 105, BW = 10Hz,
V+
+ V0
GBW = 105x10Hz = 1MHz
Example: For closed loop gain 70 dB. What is closed-loop BW?
Gain: 20log(Acl)= 70dB  A = 1, BW = 1 MHz,
 log (Acl)= 70/20 = 3.5 or Acl = 103.5 = 3162 Vi
+ V0 GBW = 1x1MHz = 1MHz
 Closed-loop BW: fcl = fT /Acl = 1 MHz / 3162 = 316.3 Hz.
 Op-Amp Slew Rate
 The slew-rate (SR) is the maximum possible rate of change of the op amp output voltage.
Slew Rate (SR) = max in V/µs

 
Square Wave: Applied a square wave input to the 741 Op-amp in Fig. 1,
find the slew rate  SR = ΔVO/Δt = 2.06V / 3.16 µs = 0.63V/ µs (Ref Lab #1).

Sine Waves: The maximum rate of change for a sine wave occurs at the zero SR = 0.63V/ µs.
crossing and for a given vo = VP sin(2π f t), the slew rate SR is: Fig. 1
Slew Rate (SR) = max = 2π fmax VP

Example:
  Given Slew rate SR = 1 V/μs; input voltage vin (t) = 1 sin(2π × 105t);
closed loop gain AV =10.
1) Sketch the theoretically output and the actual output in the same graph.
2) What is the maximum frequency that will not violating the given slew rate?
3) What is the maximum gain A that will not violating the given slew rate?
4) What is the required SR to prevent distortion output?
Solutions:
5) See graph Fig. 2
6) fmax = SR / (A x 2π) = 1 x 106 / (10 x 2π) = 15.9 kHz
7) VPmax = SR / (f x 2π) = 1 x 106 / (105 x 2π) = 1.59 V  A = 1.59 Fig. 2
8) For voltage gain A = 10  vo(t) = 10 sin(2π × 105t)  SR = | = 2π x f x 10 = 2π × 105 x 10 = 6.28 V/μs
 Op-Amp: The Four Amplifier Types

Gain Transfer
Description Symbol Function
Voltage Amplifier
or Av Vout/Vin
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

Current Amplifier
or Ai Iout/Iin
Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS)

Transconductance Amplifier gm
or Iout/Vin
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCIS) (siemens)

Transresistance Amplifier rm
or Vout/Iin
Current Controlled Voltage Source (ICVS) (ohms)
Op-Amp: Four Amplifier Types
 Op-Amp: Golden
Rules
vd = v+ – v–
+
vo = Avd = A (v+ – v–) Vd
–

1. i+ = i – = 0 (Since Ri = ꚙ. This is always true for any feedback configuration).

2. v+ = v– (In negative feedback, the output of the op amp will try to adjust its output so that the
voltage difference between the + and − inputs is zero  V+ = V−).
Rule 2. is not applied if VO in saturation.

Note: The resistances used in an op-amp circuit must be much larger than Ro and much smaller than Ri in order for the
ideal op-amp equations to be accurate.
 Op-Amp: Negative and Positive
Feedback

Negative feedback:
Vout = A(V+ – V–) = A(Vin – Vout) Positive feedback:
Vout = A(V+ – V–) = A(Vout – Vin)
If Vout > Vin  Vout ↓ goes down toward Vin
If Vout > Vin  Vout ↑ goes way up to + saturation
If Vout < Vin  Vout ↑ goes up toward Vin
If Vout < Vin  Vout ↓ goes way down to – saturation
This drives Vout = Vin or V+ = V-
This drives Vout to either directions: + / – saturation
 Negative feedback Op-Amp can produce any
voltage in the supply power range.  Positive feedback Op-Amp can only produce
maximum and minimum voltages of the range.

Positive feedback:
Negative feedback:
 Op-Amp: Non-inverting Negative
 
Negative Feedback
feedback is used in almost all linear op-amp circuits because it stabilizes the gain and reduces distortion. A basic
configuration is a noninverting amplifier with negative feedback the difference between Vi and Vf is very small, or Vi ≈Vf.
The closed-loop gain for the noninverting amplifier can be derived as: Acl(NI) = 1 +
The input resistance increases by: Ri(NI) = (1 + AolB)Ri where Ri is op-amp input resistance and feedback fraction B =
The output resistance decreases by: Ro(NI) = Ro where Ro is op-amp output resistance
The low output resistance implies that the output voltage is independent of the load resistance (as long as the current limit
is not exceeded).

 
Example: Given a non-inverting op-amp with Rf = 24kW , R1 = 1kW, what are
the input and output resistances and the gain of the noninverting amplifier?
Assume the op amp has Aol = 100,000, Ri = 2 MW, and Ro = 75 W.
Solution: The gain: Acl(NI) = 1 + = 1 + = 25
The feedback fraction: B = =
The input resistance: Ri(NI) = (1 + AolB)Ri = (1 + (100,000)0.04)2MW = 8MW
The output resistance: Ro(NI) = Ro = 75W = 0.019W
 Op-Amp: Inverting Negative Feedback
 
Negative feedback forces the inverting input to be near ac ground for the inverting amplifier. For this reason, the input
resistance of the inverting amplifier is defined as: Ri(I) = R1.
The low input resistance is usually a disadvantage of this circuit. However, because the Ri(I) is equal to R1, it can easily be
set by the user for those cases where a specific value is needed.
The output resistance of the inverting amplifier is the essentially the same as the noninverting amplifier:
Ro(NI) = Ro where Ro is op-amp output resistance
The closed-loop gain for the inverting amplifier can be derived as: Acl(I) = –

 
Example: Given a inverting op-amp with Rf = 24kW, R1 = 1kW, what are the
input and output resistances and the gain of the noninverting amplifier?
Assume the op amp has Aol = 100,000, Ri = 2 MW, and Ro = 75 W.
Virtual Ground Solution: The gain: Acl(I) = – = – = – 24
The feedback fraction: B = = 16
The input resistance: Ri(NI) = R1 = 1kW
The output resistance: Ro(NI) = Ro = 75W = 0.018W
 Op-Amp: Saturation
The op-amp output voltage is limited by the supply voltages.  In practice the
limits are about 1.5 to 2 V below the value of the supply voltages.
 
The op amp has three distinct regions of operation:
• Linear region: −VEE < Vo < VCC  Vo/Vi = A = constant
• Positive saturation: Vo > VCC  Vo = VCC
• Negative saturation: Vo < −VEE  Vo = –VEE

Note that the saturation voltage, in general, is not symmetric.

For an amplifier with a given gain, A, the above range of Vo translate into a
certain range for Vi
− VEE < Vo < VCC or − VEE < A Vi < VCC
 − VEE / A < Vi < VCC / A

Any amplifier will enter its saturation region if Vi is raised above certain limit.
The figure shows how the amplifier output clips when amplifier is not in the
linear region.

Example: For A = 105, –VDD = –12V, VCC = +15V, find range of input Vi to
prevent saturation.
Solution: –12V / 105 < Vi < 15V / 105 or – 0.12mV < Vi < 0.15mV
 Op-Amp: Two Basic Op-Amp
Configurations
Negative feedback is when the occurence of an event causes something to happen that counteracts the original event.
In negative-feedback configuration, op-amp always “wants” both inputs (inverting and non-inverting) to be the same value.
The Inverting Op Amp The Non-Inverting Op Amp

 Negative feedback: Vi = V+ = V– = Vo

Closed loop gain: Acl = = = 1 +

When Rf = 0 and R1 = ∞, the non-inverting amplifier becomes a voltage

 Negative feedback: V+ = V– = follower or unity gain buffer (gain Acl = 1). This configuration offers very
high input impedance and its very low output impedance.
 I1 = =  = V+
Vi
Closed loop gain: Acl = = Vo  Negative feedback: Vi = V+ = V–= Vo
V–
Closed loop gain: Acl = = 1
 Op-Amp: Top Op-Amp Application
Configurations
Differential Amplifier Non-inverting Summing Amplifier Inverting Summing Amplifier

 Vo =)

  Vo =

Intrumentation
Converter current – voltage Negative resistance
two op-amps to buffer the
input signals and a third to
cancel out the common-
mode noise.
 Op-Amp: Op-Amp
 V = 2V, R = 1kΩ
Circuits
The Howland Current Pump Circuit
VL Vo I1 I2 IL
(V) (V) (mA) (mA) (mA)
2 4 0 -2 2

IR = Vi/2R 1 2 -1 -1 2

IO = I S + I R 0 0 -2 0 2

-1 -2 -3 -1 2

-2 -4 -4 -2 2

  = ½ Vo
V
Ballanced Differential Amplifier I 1 + I2 + I L = = 0
 Op-Amp #1 is non-inverting: =0
Vo1 = (1 + RF1/R1) Vi 0
#1
 constant
Op-amp #2 is inverting:
Vo1 = RF2/R1 Vi

#2 Ballanced amplifier when:

Vo1 = Vo2
 Op-Amp: Top Op-Amp Application
 
Integrator Configurations
(Low pass filter): Bode plot is shown below.  Integrator (Low pass filter with Gain): Bode plot is shown below.
Gain: = – = – DC Gain: = – AC gain: = –
When ZC = 1/(2πfC) = R  Gain = 1 Corner Frequency: f0 =

Example:
(a) For LPF with gain, find suitable
components to achieve a −3-dB frequency
of 1 kHz with a dc gain of 20 dB and an
input resistance of at least 10 kΩ
(b) At what frequency does gain drop to 0 dB?
 Op-Amp: Op-Amp
(a) Find i, i and v .
Circuits
f o
i=0A

(b) For the ideal op amp shown below, what should be the
value of resistor Rf to obtain a gain of 5?
V+  Solution: Want Vo = 5Vi
For non-inverting:
For Input V+ = and Output VO = 5Vi  Gain = =
Gain = 1 +  Rf = 19.5kΩ

Another way: i = =

Vo = (Rf + )i = (Rf + ) = 5Vi Rf = 19.5kΩ

 Op-Amp: Op-Amp
Circuits
(a) Given an op-amp circuit below. If the power supplies for the op-amp are ± VCC = ± 12V. Determine:
a. Overall gain A = VOUT / VIN, VOUT and IOUT .
b. If op-amp in saturation, what is voltages at V+ and V-.

 
Solution:
(a) Vx =
i=
Vz =
Vy =
IOUT = 2 mA + 2 mA = 4 mA
VOUT = = 16V  A = VOUT / VIN = 16V / 4V = 4
However, VOUT = 16V > Power supply 12V
 Saturation  VOUT = 12V Clamp
(b) For VOUT = 12V  IOUT = 12V / ( + //2
i = 3 mA / 2 = 1.5 mA
 Vz =
 Vy = V- = 1kΩ x 1.5 mA = 1.5V
 V+ = Vx = 2V
V+ ≠ V- when op-amp in saturation mode.
 Op-Amp: Op-Amp
Circuits
(a) Given gain A1 = RF/RS = 100, 741 Op-Amp GBW product = A0 ω0 = K = 2π × 106 . Determine the overall 3-dB bandwidth of
the cascade amplifier below:
 Solutions: The 3-dB bandwidth for each amplifier is:
ω1 = = 2π × 104 rad/s
BW of the cascade = 2π × 104 & cascade gain AT = A1A1= 102 × 102 = 104.
 Gain AT = 104 with BW = 104 Hz.

To get the same gain AT = 104 with a single-stage amplifier having the same K
BW: ω2 = = 2π × 102 rad/s
 Gain AT = 104 with BW = 102 Hz.

(b) Voltage follower application:

Solutions: Given Rs = 1 kΩ, RL = 100Ω
For source and load connected directly: VL = 0.1 Vin
 Huge attenuation of the signal source.

For source and load connected via voltage follower

(buffer amplifier):
 VL = Vp = Vin
 Op-Amp: Op-Amp
(1) Find Vx , Vo
Circuits (3) Find Vy , Vo

Vx = 3.2V
Vo = -11.2V Vy = 3/2Vo
Vo = -11.4V

(2) Find Vx , Vo (4) Find Vo

Vx = 0.5Vo v+= v-= 6V

Vo = 0.8Vi
 Basic Comparators
• An ideal comparator compares two input voltages (inverting and
noninverting input) and produces an output indicating the relationship
between them.
If V+ > V–  Vout is HIGH
If V+ < V–  Vout is LOW

• The inputs can be two signals (V1, V2) or an input signal (Vin) and a fixed dc
reference voltage (Vref). The output that usually swings from rail to rail.

• A typical comparator has low offset, high gain, and high common-mode
rejection.
• Comparators are designed to work as open-loop systems, to drive logic
circuits, and to work at high speed, even when overdriven.
• The voltage at which a comparator changes from one level to another is Symmetrical
called the crossover (or threshold) voltage.
• The output logic voltages can be symmetrical or asymmetrical depends on
the digital logic requirements.
Assymmetrica
 Basic Comparators
Non-Inverting zero-crossing (Vref = 0V) comparator Inverting zero-crossing (Vref = 0V) comparator

Non-Inverting non-zero reference (Vref ≠ 0V) Inverting non-zero reference (Vref ≠ 0V)
comparator comparator
 Basic Schmitt
Comparator
Schmitt trigger uses positive feedback:
• When op-amp output V rises then (V − V ) will increase. This causes output to positive saturation  V = +Vsat .
O + − O
• If VO = +Vsat = +15V, then Vf = 5V. For any Vi < 5V, then (V+ − V−) > 0  output stays at +Vsat  VO = +15V.
• If Vi > 5V, then (V+ − V−) < 0  output switch to its minimum value or negative saturation VO = −Vsat = −15V.
• If VO = −Vsat = −15V, then Vf = −5V  output will only switch back to VO = +Vsat = +15V when Vi < −5V.

Notes:
• Negative feedback stabilizes the output to make V+ ≃ V−.
• Positive feedback adjusts the output to maximize |V+ − V−|. Output will
switch between its maximum and minimum values, e.g. ±V sat.
• Switching will happen when V+ = V−.
 The Comparators w/o and w/Hysteresis – Single power
Noise or signal variation at the comparison threshold will cause multiple transitions. Hysteresis sets an upper and lower
supply
threshold to eliminate the multiple transitions caused by noise.

 
Calculate VH and VL:
100kΩ // 576kΩ = 85k Ω
VH = = 2.7V
VL = = 2.3V
 Design of Hysteresis Comparator
Equations (1) and (2) can be used to select the resistors needed to set the hysteresis threshold voltages V H and VL.
Rh VL
=
Rx V H – VL (1)

Ry = VL
Rx VCC – VH (2)

Example: The design requirements are as follows:

• Supply Voltage: +5 V
• Input: 0V to 5V
• Equations (1) and (2) can be used to select the
• VL (Lower Threshold) = 2.3V
resistors needed to set the hysteresis threshold
• VH (Upper Threshold) = 2.7V voltages VH and VL.
• VH – VL = 0.4V
• One value (RX) must be arbitrarily selected. In this
• Vth ± 0.2V = 2.5V ± 0.2V example, Rx was set to 100kΩ to minimize current
draw.
• Rh was calculated to be 575kΩ, so the closest
standard value 576kΩ was used
 When To Use Op-amp Comparator Circuit???
Although op amps are not designed to be used as comparators, there are, nevertheless, many applications where
the use of an op amp as a comparator is a proper engineering decision.

WHY USE AN OP AMP AS A COMPARATOR?

• Convenience
• Economy (e.g. use spare op-amps in quad package
and cheaper than comparator)
• Low bias current (IB)
• Low offset voltage (VOS)
Note: This is not a good design practice.

WHY NOT USE AN OP AMP AS A COMPARATOR?

• Speed
• Inconvenient input structures (Comparator is designed
for large differential input voltages)
• Inconvenient logic structures (Compartor TTL, CMOS)
• Stability/hysteresis (stability)
References:
• https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/tutorials/MT-038.pdf
• http://www.ume.gatech.edu/mechatronics_course/OpAmp_F08.ppt
• http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/semiconductors/chpt-8/operational-amplifier-models/
• http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slaa068a/slaa068a.pdf
• http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/circuits/opamp_basics/operational-amplifier-slew-rate.php
• http://www.planetanalog.com/author.asp?section_id=483&doc_id=562347
• http://www-ferp.ucsd.edu/najmabadi/CLASS/ECE60L/02-S/NOTES/opamp.pdf
• http://www-inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ee105/fa14/lectures/Lecture06-Non-ideal%20Op%20Amps%20(Offset-Slew%20rate).p
df
• http://nptel.ac.in/courses/117107094//lecturers/lecture_6/lecture6_page1.htm
• http://www.ti.com/ww/en/bobpease/assets/AN-31.pdf
• http://www.cs.tut.fi/kurssit/TLT-8016/Chapter2.pdf
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/op-amp-comparator.html
• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/schmitt.html
• http://lpsa.swarthmore.edu/Bode/BodeExamples.html
References:

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/inverting-and-noninverting-opamp-voltage-amplifier-circuits/
Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Giorgio Rizzoni, McGraw-Hill Higher Education
http://chrisgammell.com/how-does-an-op-amp-work-part-1/
http://electronicdesign.com/analog/whats-all-noise-gain-stuff-anyhow
http://howtomechatronics.com/how-it-works/electrical-engineering/schmitt-trigger/
http://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/design-handbooks/Basic-Linear-Design/Chapter1.pdf
http://www.ti.com/lit/an/sloa011/sloa011.pdf
http://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/application-notes/AN-849.pdf
http://www.ti.com/lit/ug/tidu020a/tidu020a.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_amplifier
https://www.tubecad.com/2012/07/blog0238.htm
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/the-howland-current-pump/
 Top Fundamental Op Amp Circuits
Inverting Amplifier Non-inverting Amplifier Voltage Follower / Unity Gain Buffer

Inverting Summing Amplifie

Differential Amplifier Non-inverting Summing Amplifier

Vo
Vo

  Vo =
 Vo =

https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/fundamentals-of-op-amp-circuits