RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Prepared by:
Prof. Remedios J. Bucal
MIDTERM –
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Prepared by:

PROF. REMEDIOS J. BUCAL

College of Business Administration And Accountancy
The Effect of Four-day Workweek on Office
Productivity of Employees in Selected
Organization in LISP
City of Cabuyao Laguna

The Relationship between the Academic

Performance and Study Habits of PNC
Students
The Effect of Four-day Workweek on Office Productivity of Employees
in Selected Organization
in LISP City of Cabuyao Laguna

General Problem: To the determine the effect of four-day workweek on

office productivity of employees in selected organization in LISP City of
Cabuyao Laguna
Sub-specific Problems:
1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 Age
1.2 Gender
1.3 Civil Status
2. What is the effect of four-day workweek to the respondents in terms of
2.1 Compensation
 2.2 Job satisfaction
 2.3 Work Environment
 2.4 Kind/nature of work

3. What is the level of productivity of the

respondents in terms of
3.1 quality
3.2 quantity
4. Is there a significant relationship between the
effect of the four day workweek and the level
of productivity of the respondents
Chapter 1. THE PROBLEM AND ITS
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION – it provide readers with the background
information for the research. It provide answer to the questions”
“what are you doing”; “why are you doing”; and what is the
purpose of the study”
Guidelines in Writing the Introduction
Describe the problem situation globally, nationally, and or locally
specially the trends and issues in the field.
Cite the legal bases of the study (if applicable)
Link the situation to the existing body of knowledge. Cite statistics
and authoritative sources to support the idea.
State the contributionof the study
Make a clinching statement that will relate the introduction to the
proposed research problem.
 Writing an Introduction
An introduction answers the following questions:
1. What is the problem?
2. Why is it a problem?
3. How it is solved?
4. Why it should be solved?
5. What is the purpose of the study?

ACTIVITY: Read the sample introduction & identify the parts of Introduction
Background of the Study
 What is the background of the study?
It is a presentation of the history of research
topic.

 Objective of the background of the study

To familiarize the readers on what the
research topic is all about.
Writing the Background of the Study
The purpose of the background of the study is to help you to
prove the relevance of your research question and to further
develop your thesis. The background of the study includes:
1. A review of the area being researched;
2. Current information surrounding the issue;
3. Previews studies on the issue;
4. Relevant history on the issue; and
5. Effectively set forth the history and background
information on the problem.
How do you write a background study
 1. Conduct a primary research at the beginning stages of
formulating a thesis when many issues are unclear.
 2. Read the information and develop a research question
of thesis statement that will guide your research.
 3. Write a thesis statement or research question.
 4. Complete your research using your thesis statement and
research questions as your guide.
How do you write a background study
 5. Create five separate sections, that cover the key
issues, major findings and controversies surrounding
your thesis as well as sections that provide an
evaluation and conclusions
 6. Conclude by identifying and further study what
needs to be done in the area or provide possible
solutions to the issue that haven’t been considered
before.
 Revise and edit your background study
Background of the Study answer the
following questions:
 1. What are some research results?
 2. What is the research questions?
 3. What is the research statement?
 4. How would you complete your research?
Theoretical Framework
 Theory – an organized body of concepts synthesized from
studies, related facts or observations which serve as accepted
explanation for the existence of truth of something.
- Is a conceptual invention that is used to describe, explain,
predict or understand a certain phenomenon.
 Framework – a fundamental structure which supports and
give shape to the general body of knowledge
 Theoretical Framework – A set of interrelated
constructs, definitions and propositions or theories that
linked to each variables of the study which serve as the
fundamental structure of the study.
- Is the structure showing the research design and
methodology or the entire process of research using
theory or theories for developing a hypothesis or
testing another one or more theories intended learning
outcomes.
 Example of Theories: Agency Theory/Stakeholders Theory/Systems Theory/Contingency
Theory/Rewards Theory/Motivation Theory/Organizational and Leadership Theories
Construction of Theoretical
Framework
 Step 1. Identify the concepts and variables of the study
 Step 2. For each of the variables and concepts in the
study, search for the established or scientifically
accepted associated theory or theories.
 Step 3. Diagram the theories together with the title of
the study with a arrow box to the study box
 Step 4. Present the textual explanation of the
association of the theories with the variables and
concepts of the study
Theoretical Framework
•Organizational
Effectiveness
•Empowerment

Organization
Development
Intervention

Total Quality
Management

Figure 1
TQM Theory Towards Empowerment for Organizational
Effectiveness
GOAL PATH THEORY OF
LEADERSHIP

    GOALS        

           

Motivated Effective
Employee Needs Leader Behavior
Employees Performance

           

Paths Towards
           
Goals
Conceptual Framework
 Concept – An image or symbolic representation of an abstract ideas
or notion.

 Conceptual Framework – refers to the researchers concepts about

the study. It is used in research to outline the possible courses of
action to present a preferred approach to idea or thought.

 Operational Framework
Conceptual Framework
 Conceptual framework is researcher’s own position on a problem; it
is an idea; a thought

 It is the researcher’s new model taken from previous reviewed

/studied models

 Using a concept in the study means considering its operationalisation

-how it will be measured

 To operationalize— go through the process of identifying your

indicators
Steps in Developing the Conceptual
Framework
 Identify the key concepts and/ or variables included in
the study.
 The concept to be used should be derived from the
theories presented in the theoretical framework.
 Know the relationship of these concepts and/ or
variables.
 Make a schematic diagram, graphical presentation,
illustration or matrix of relationship of these concepts.
 O
RGANIZATIONAL

Conceptual Framework
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT
•Continuous Improvement • Data Gathering
•Benchmarking • Organization
•Commitment of all in the Development
Organization Intervention
•Student Services • Analysis and
•Measurement, Analysis Interpretation of
and Evaluation data
•Strategic Planning
•Education, Training and
Development

FEEDBACK
Statement of the Problem
Steps in Writing the Statement of the
Problem
 1. Write the general problem of the study
 2. Identify the variables of the study.
 3. Analyze how the key and auxiliary concerns may be
classified.
 4. Decide on the option

* Focus only on the key concerns

* Include the auxiliary concerns
* Focus on one classification of key concern and
include all the auxiliary concerns
* Other probable mix
 5. Write the specific questions based on STEP 3 & 4
Guidelines in Formulating the General
and Sub-Specific Problems
 1. The general problem should have the following
characteristics:
 A. It is a results from felt need
 B. it must reflect noteworthy contribution to knowledge
 C. it must be within the interest of the researcher
 D. it must be within the researchers competence and
interest
 E. It must be within the resources of the investigator with
reference to time, money and workability
Guidelines in Formulating the General and
Sub-Specific Problems
 2. The general problem should be stated in such away that
it is not answerable by yes or no, when and where.
 3. Each sub-problem should be as extensive in coverage
as the others along mutually exclusive dimensions (no
overlapping)
 4. The sub-problems should be arranged in logical order
from factual to analytical
 It is customary to state the specific problems in the
interrogative form
Guidelines in Formulating the General and Sub-
Specific Problems
 5. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal
that is, it has only one meaning . It must not have dual
meanings.
 6. Answers to each questions can be interpreted apart
from the answers to other specific questions.
 7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to
the development of the whole research topic.
 8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions
will give a complete development of the entire study.
APPLICATION:

Total Quality Management Towards Faculty

Empowerment and Its Relationship to
Organizational Effectiveness
GENERAL PROBLEM:
 To determine the extent of implementation of Total
Quality Management constructs, extent faculty
empowerment and its relationship to organizational
effectiveness.
SUB-SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
Statement of the Problem
The study attempted to show that through Total Quality Management, an
organization becomes effective especially in developing the empowerment of its
personnel.
More specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:
1. How are the constructs of Total Quality Management implemented in the school
in the areas of:
1.1 Continuous Improvement,
1.2 Benchmarking,
1.3 Commitment of all in the Organization,
1.4 Student Services,
1.5 Measurement, Analysis and Evaluation,
1.6 Organizational Management and Leadership,
1.7 Strategic Planning, and
1.8 Education, Training and Development?
Continuation SOP. . .
2. To what extent is faculty empowerment achieved in the
following organizational processes:
2.1 Goal Setting,
2.2 Communications,
2.3 Evaluation and
2.4 Leadership
Continuation SOP. . .
3. How do faculty asses the organizational effectiveness of the school in
terms of:
3.1 Attainment of Vision-Mission,
3.2 Productivity,
3.3 High Performance, and
3.4 High Level of Job Satisfaction?
4. To what extent is faculty empowerment significantly achieved through
implementation of Total Quality management?

5. To what extent is organization effectiveness significantly influence by:

5.1 Total Quality Management and
5.2 Faculty Empowerment?
Hypothesis of the study
 Hypothesis – tentative solution to the problem which may be accepted
or rejected, depending on what the facts are.
 - it is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables
 - is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in
your study
 Is consist of dependent (outcome-the effect) and independent variables
(produce change-the cause)
Types of Hypothesis
 1. Research Hypothesis - it is a temporary solutions to a set of problems
of the research, using their words.
 2. Statistical Hypothesis

Two types of statistical hypothesis

a. Null (Ho) b. Alternative (Ha)
Types of Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis – is a statement about the populations being
examined that always states that there is no effect, no change, or
no relationship. In general, the null hypothesis says nothing
happened (Almeda et.al, 2016)
 Ho: There is no significant relationship between the effect of the
four day workweek and the level of productivity of the respondents.
 Alternative Hypothesis - is the opposite of null hypothesis, says
that the treatment does have an effect
 Ha: There is a significant relationship between the effect of the four
day workweek and the level of productivity of the respondents.
Functions of Hypothesis
 1. It introduces the thinking of the researcher, of what is the objective or
target of research in his mind.
 It structures the next stage of the research report after presenting the
variables in the study.
 It identifies the characteristics of the researcher, whether an objective or
biased researcher.
 It brings the research to a deeper analysis of the variables in the study.
 It identifies research hopes and contemplates for the study
 It helps a research provide the format of the presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data gathered in the study.
APPLICATION
Hypotheses of the Study (Refer to SOP)
The following hypotheses were tested in the study:
Ho1. Faculty empowerment is not fully achieved through
the implementation of Total Quality Management.
Ho2. Organization Effectiveness is not significantly
influenced by:
2.1 Total Quality Management
2.2 Faculty Empowerment
MQ1- Formulate the Statement of the Problem
and Hypothesis of the following thesis titles:
 1. The Influence of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Factors on the GWA of the Third Year Marketing Students.

2. The Relationship Between Emotional Quotient and

Leadership Skills of Managers of a Manufacturing Firm
 3. Leadership Practices of Fastfood Chain in the City of
Cabuyao Laguna
 Scope and Delimitation/Limitation
 Scope and Delimitation/Limitation - set the boundaries of the
investigation
 Scope- refers to what are covered in the study as well as the limits of the
study
 Delimitations- it is the extent to which the researcher decided to cover
in the study.
 Limitations – refers to the furthest extent within the coverage of the
study which the researcher could cover due to inevitable restrictions.
Scope and
Delimitations/Limitations
The scope and delimitations contains the following;
Geographical coverage
Time frame or time limit
The variables to be Included? Excluded? And Why?
Indicate the unit of analysis, what is being studied ?
Individuals? Groups?
APPLICATION:
Scope and Delimitations of the Study
The time reference of the study was the Academic Year 2018-
2019. TQM constructs considered in the study, were: Continuous
improvement, Benchmarking, Commitment of all in the organization,
Student Services, Measurement, Analysis and Evaluation;, Strategic
planning, and Education, Training and Development.
Other variables considered were Organizational Effectiveness as
an end-goals of an organization and Empowerment which was reflected
through organizational processes of goal setting, communications and
evaluation.
Significance of the Study
- it shows the contributions of research to various end
users.
 The intended or target beneficiaries of the study. The
researcher should be able to identify WHO will benefit
from the results of the investigation.
APPLICATION:
 Significance of the Study
The findings of the study would not only be of interest to the management of school
but also to faculty and indirectly the students.

 Management of the school. The findings of the study would have implications on the
management of the school. The results of the study would be of importance to
management as performance would be based on criterion measures of success of the
project on TQM. The results would furnish some base lines for decision making and
policy formulation regarding the outcomes of the implementation of TQM and the
effects on personnel and organizational effectiveness. The effects of TQM supported
by solid evidence may justify the five year investment in terms of money, human
resources and the use of physical resources, on organizational effectiveness and the
attainment of Vision Mission.
 Faculty. The study would not only furnish an opportunity for faculty -to give their
opinions regarding the implementation of TQM but their grievances as well in an
orderly manner .The positive and negative effects of the implementation of the so
called innovation , should now be assessed. Such assessments may be viewed as valid
for decision making and the formulation of policies. Then management would be made

 aware of the true facts on what are happening which may be lend to the proper
utilization of human potentials and other resources. Moreover, results on the
implementation are important for it can determine what are prevailing that can support
the possible changes. They may have to consider, which are unique, distinct and
different from other schools.

 Students. Students would indirectly be affected as they will be the beneficiaries of

whatever, the results of the finding of the present study.
Definition of Terms
 Conceptual Definition – also called technical definition of the
term comes from authoritative sources.
 Operational definition – defining terms and concepts as used in
the investigation.
 Include in the definition of terms some words, names or phrases
from the title and those variables used in the statement of
problems
 Defining the terms both conceptually and operationally is
advisable since the conceptual definition provides the reader
with the basic meaning of the word, while the operational
definition gives the delimiting distinction of the study’s words
from similar words in the ordinary usage.
Definition of terms must be in logical or alphabetical arrangement
APPLICATION
Definitions of Terms
The following terms were hereby defined as they were used within
context of the study:

Faculty Empowerment refers to the extent the faculty are allowed to

participate in such organizational processes, as goal setting, communications
evaluation and leadership and the extent their ideas are accepted r solicited.

Organization Development Intervention (ODI) are techniques used to help or

assist the organization to prepare for change. for quality development and for
organizational effectiveness through personnel development . In the study,
TQM was used as an Organizational Development Intervention.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS Cont….
 Organizational Effectiveness pertains to the end-goals any organization
which are measured through attainment of vision-mission, high level of
productivity, performance and job satisfaction.

 Total Quality Management is an organization wide pursuit for compliance

with standards and measurements of performance using constructs such as:
Continuous Improvement, Benchmarking, Commitment of All in the
Organization, Measurement, Analysis and Evaluation, Client Satisfaction,
Organization Management and Leadership, Strategic Planning and
Education, Training and Development. It is viewed in three aspects, as a
process, a method of evaluation and a management innovation.
 Chapter 2
Review of Related Literature and Studies
 What is a review of related literature/studies?
A retrospective presentation of previously written materials
that have existing relevance or relationships to the research
study under consideration
- Organized related literature and studies inform the reader of
what is a known and what is conflicting the area.
Review – means that the researcher goes over the materials,
books, journals, articles, theses, dissertations and internet
presentations. The purpose is to determine what has been
written about the problem
Related – similar especially on the problems situation
Synthesis of the review of related literature and studies- it
shows the similarities and differences of your study from
previous studies/researches.
 Related Literature – is also called conceptual literature
 It clarifies the different variables being studied and the limitations
of the study were determined
 Related Studies – this serves as the basis of the analysis of
results because it allows the researcher to compare and
contrast his/her findings with those of previews.
 In the review of related study, the following are indicated:

1. name of the author, the date and the setting the study was
conducted;
2. the title
3. the salient findings
Major Steps in a Literature Review
 1. Search preliminary sources such as books, articles, theses, etc.
 2. Use secondary sources – a document written by someone who do
not actually do the research
 3. Read primary sources- obtain and study the original outputs of at
least those studies that are most central to your proposed investigation.
 4. Synthesis the literature – synthesize what you have learned in order
to write the little literature review.
 5. Identify the recommendations for further research.
 6. Seek support for grounded theory
 Purpose
 provide information on topics or problems, scope, processes or
methods used by previous researchers
 Identify the missing variables, areas
 Present the existing knowledge to which the current expected results
can be linked
Importance of the Review
Putthe problem in the context of existing
knowledge
Assures the reader that the current study is
new one (not a duplication)
Establish relationship of the current research
to previous work (additional contribution to
knowledge buildup)
 Guide to Review of Literature

 Materials must be
 as recent as possible (5yrs. Old)
 as objective and unbiased as possible
 relevant to the study (with similarity or bearings on
current research problem)
 Sufficient

 15 to 25 master’s degree; 25 and above doctorate,

depending on availability
Four Steps in Reviewing
Literature
1. Search for existing literature in your area of study
2. Consider broad areas of problems of the study
3. Set the parameters
4. Compile bibliography from books and journals, etc.
Procedure for Reviewing and Presenting the
Literature
 Begin from a comprehensive perspective of a relevant
secondary data
 Move to more specific studies associated to your
problems
 Avoid extraneous details
 Be brief in discussing information
 Always refer to original source
 Present a quotation that is of interest to you and which
you fully understand
CHAPTER 3. RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
 Research Designs
 Research Locale
 Population and Sampling
 Instrumentation and Validation
 Data Gathering Procedures
 Statistical Tools and Treatment of Data
CONCEPT OF RESEARCH METHOD
AND DESIGN
 Research Designs - refers to the overall plan for
the conduct of a specific research project.
 a classified or categorized procedure for
conducting research
A plan, structure and strategy of the
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers
to research questions or problems.
RESEARCH METHODS-
 Refers to the philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and analytic
perspective of research.
 1. QUALITATIVE METHOD –researches that do not seek
generalization of data and are not concern about population or
sample
 2. QUANTATIVE METHOD-Research that are generally
empirical and are derived from direct data which are necessarily
numeric, tend to make generalizations, inferences and
projections.
 3. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD – the study is focused on the
future (what it will be)
 4. MIXED METHODS – refers to the research design that uses
both quantitative and qualitative data to answer a particular
question or set of questions. In the mixed method/design
“words pictures and narratives can be used to add meaning to
numbers” (Almeida et.al, 2016)
 Research Designs in Qualitative
Methods
1. Qualitative Methods – researches that do not seek
generalization of data and are not concern about
population or sample
 Used for special kinds of researches or studies such as
the following:
 Case study
 Gounded theory
 Ethnography
 Phenomenology
 Mixed Methods
Research Design in Qualitative
Methods
1. Ethnographic Method. This is concerned with the
environment or setting where the behavior occurred.
Having the purpose of:
 Discovering and describing the culture of people or
organization
 Understanding the social phenomenon from the
perspective of the participants
 Analyzing the context of the participants and
narrating their stories
Research Design in Qualitative Methods
2. Phenomenological. It deals with human
experience, using metaphor, narrative form, and
inductive method. It seeks to explain rather
than merely describe the incidents of the story.

3. Historical Research. A branch of knowledge

that records and explain past events and
interprets them in the light of the present.
History involves many past experiences that
help in knowing what to do in the present and
plan what is in the future.
Research Design in Qualitative
Methods
 Types of historical Research
 Deliberate – there is a conscious effort to preserve information like in
diaries—recorded with the aim of transmitting or passing on information.
 Incidental – supplies information that was not the original intention. This
may consist of physical objects or written materials of historical value
which are called relics or remains and are produced without deliberate
aim to impart information
RESEARCH DESIGNS IN
Quantitative Methods
Research that are generally empirical and are derived from direct data
which are necessarily numeric, tend to make generalizations, inferences
and projections.

1. Descriptive method. Focus on the present situation. It

seeks to describe “what is” the data. The purpose is to find
new truth.
Types of Descriptive Method
1. Surveys. Intends to gather relatively limited data from
relative large sample number of subjects/cases. This
may include correlational, assessments or causal
comparative studies.
2. Developmental Studies. The method of research
where, one desires reliable information about a group
or people over a long period of time.
 Longitudinal method
 Cross-sectional
Types of Descriptive Method

4. Assessment or Evaluation Studies. Refer to be the

efficiency or effectiveness of policies, instruments, or
the variables that may be considered.
5.Comparative Studies. Determining the differences
in characteristics between variables, without
determining the cause or may cause a difference.
6.Correlational Studies. Determine how the variations
of one variable go with the other, including the
amount of magnitude and the direction of such
variations.
Types of Descriptive Method
 7. Follow-up Studies (Tracer Study). Used when
one wants to know the development of certain
conditions or particular set of people.
 8. Trends and Projection. Popular for projects
that are forward looking. It predict behavior of some
variables, and certain assumptions have to be made.
 9. Participatory Research. It is used on massive
scale and concerns large populations.
 10. Documentary Analysis. Involves gathering of
information by analyzing written records or documents
to solve problem.
Experimental Method
 Focuses the study on the future (what will be) when the variables
are carefully controlled or manipulated. It can be basic or applied or
developmental research.

 Viewed as a method with the most utilitarian and most prestigious

and most sophisticated method in the sense that it always brings to
the fore important new knowledge and ushers advance information,
especially where quality of life is concerned.
MIXED METHODS
1. Appreciative Inquiry. Cooperative search for the best in people
(exceptionality, unique gifts, strengths and qualities), their organizations and the
world around them.
 Appreciate. Valuing or the act of recognizing the best in other people or
the world affirming the past and present strengths, successes and
potentials, to perceive the things that give life to living systems and to
increase in value
 Inquiry. An act of exploration and discovery to ask questions and to be
open to seeing new potentials and possibilities.
2. CASE Study - A type of detailed and in-depth research involving a few
respondents, ranging from one to a small size of less than ten (10),
(Adanza, 2007). This design is relevant when the focus of the study is on
extensively exploring and understanding rather than confirming and qualifying
(Kumar, 2011)
 Sources of Data
 Sources of Data
 primary sources (respondents); first hand
information
 secondary sources (reports, books, journals, etc;
second hand information
 tertiary sources (accounts of witnesses of events,
oral history)
 CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 
The chapter elaborates on the research design
contemplated for the study that aimed to determine the role of
management constructs popularly known as Total Quality
Management and faculty empowerment as an intervention
towards the organizational effectiveness. The research design
takes into consideration: its methods of research, the selection of
the respondents and its sampling method, the sources of data,
instrumentation, validation, and the statistical methods and
techniques to interpret data within the context of its purpose.
Research Design
The researcher utilized the descriptive method of research to attain
the purpose of the study. The rationale of the study was based on the fact
that the present study is status trend and dealt with the prevailing
characteristics of respondents in their perceptions on the extent of the
implementation constructs of Total Quality Management, empowerment of
faculty in selected organizational processes and the criterion measures of
organizational effectiveness. Since one of the purpose of the study was to
determine the empowerment of faculty, the extent to which the following
processes prevailed in the organization, the effects of TQM on organization
effectiveness as measured by the attainment of vision-mission, productivity
of faculty, high performance of faculty and a high level of job satisfaction.
 Adanza (2006) said that: the descriptive method is used
mainly to discover new knowledge that may have implications
and meaning to the present . An important discussion of the
research methods is the aspect of the use of statistics to confirm
the validity and reliability of the results of the research as
mentioned by Adanza. She added that the primary function of
descriptive method is to describe “what is” of data, not to
explain why it is so.
Respondents of the Study
 Define the Population of your study
 Describe who makes up the population of the study
 Can each element of the study population be identified? If yes,
how?
 Will a sample or the population be studied?
 If sample only, how will you draw the sample?
 What technique will you use?
 How can you get in touch with selected sample?
 How will the samples consent to participate in the study
be sought?
 Example:
Population of the Study and Sampling Design

The population of the study consisted of 163 faculty

members of Pamantasan ng Cabuyao, a purposive sample
of 100 was considered for the study, coming from different
departments which constituted 61.00 percent of the
population frame.
Respondents of the Study
 POPULATION- is the total collection of elements about which we
want to make some inferences.
 Consist all the elements under consideration, the universe of the study
and its characteristics are called “parameters” or the perfect
measurement of its characteristics.
 Parameters – is the summary description of a given variable in a
population.
 Kinds of Population
- Finite
- Infinite
Sampling and Sampling
Technique
 Sample – these are the elements who are actually selected to
participate or to be the subject of the study.
 Sampling – It is the process of selecting some of elements of the
population where we can make conclusions about the entire population
 Sample size - the actual list of sampling units from which the sample,
or some stage of the sample, is selected.
 REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING- a sample will be representative
of the population from which it is selected if the aggregate
characteristics of the sample closely approximate those same aggregate
characteristics in the population.
Sampling and Sampling Technique
 Sampling technique – refer to different ways of deriving a sample

Different Ways in Determining the Sample

 1. Rule of thumb – 10 percent of the population for big
population, 20 percent for small population
 2. Central limit Theorem
 3. Less than 50 percent but greater than 30 percent – parametric
statistics may be used
 4. less than 30 elements and it is purposive sample – the
interpretation of data shall be limited to sample only
 5. for correlational research 30 subjects
 6. Slovin’s formula
Different ways of Deriving a
Sample
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING - This sample is a proportion of the
population and such sample is selected from the population by
means of systematic way in which every element of the population
has a chance of being included
Types of probability Sampling
 1. Pure random sampling - Everyone in the population has an
equal chance of being selected or included in the sample.
 2. Systematic sampling - Every nth in a name list may be
selected to be included in the sample. This is used when the
respondents are arranged in some systematic manner or logical
manner such as alphabetical arrangement.
Types of Probability Sampling
 3. Stratified sampling - It is the process of selecting
randomly, samples from the strata of the population
used in the study. This technique is used when the
respondents of the study has class stratification or
grouping.
 4. Cluster sampling - Or multistage sampling is used
when the population is so big or the geographical area
of the research is so large.
Non-Probability Sampling –
the sample is not a proportion of the population and there is no system
in selecting the sample. The selection depends upon the situation
Types of non-probability Sampling
1. Accidental sampling- There is no system of selection but only those
whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance are included in the
sample. For instance, the researcher stands in a street corner and he
interviews every one passes by.
2. Quota sampling - Specified numbers of person of certain types are
included in the sample. The advantage of quota sampling over accidental
sampling is that many sectors of the population are represented.
Types of non-probability Sampling
 3. Convenience sampling - Is the process of picking out people in
the most convenient and fastest way to immediately get their
reactions to a certain issue. This type of sampling is certainly biased
and not representative since the views of a group of respondents may
differ from the views of another group or set of respondents.

 4. Purposive sampling - Is determining the target population, those

to be involved in the study. The respondents are chosen based on their
knowledge of the subject being studied or information desired
(Almeida et.al., 2016)
Mixed Methods
- This sampling method that combines different types of
sampling into a single design.

 1. Telephone-Based Sampling – utilizes telephone

numbers as sampling unit
 1.1 List –based sampling from directories
 1.2 Random digit dialing
 2. Web-based sampling – internet are utilized as sampling
units (email address, websites)
 3. Address-based sampling – postal addressed were
utilized
Mixed Methods (Cont…
4. Time-based sampling – units of time are used as
sampling units. This is used in studying repeated outcomes
that vary a great deal over time. (days, weeks, months, year)

5. Space-based sampling – the space may be geographical

units or various locations, it is a principle mode of sampling
utilized in nationwide personal interview surveys,
environmental sampling and ecological sampling
Purposes/Advantages of Sampling
 1. Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous
population
 2. Sampling is for economy. Research without sampling maybe too
costly.
 3. Sampling is for speed. Research without sampling might be too
time consuming.
 4. Sampling is for accuracy
 5. Sampling save all sources of data from all being consumed
 Data Collection
 Data - . A collection of number, quantities, facts or
records used as bases for drawing conclusion or making
references.

Approaches to Data Gathering

1. Primary Sources of data – are data personally gathered by the
researchers.
2. Secondary Data – information from other sources through document
analysis
- demographic information – census, surveys of labor force - - Preview
of researches done by others
- historical and personal records and diaries
- Published reports in news papers, magazines or internet
Different Tools and Technique Used in
Data Gathering
 1. Questionnaire – the most commonly used tool to generate data
also known as survey questionnaire. It refers to paper and pencil data
gathering method. It can be mailed or personally administered by the
researchers to the respondents.
 Kinds of Questionnaire
 1. Open-ended questionnaire – one whose options of the items are not
given or arranged.
 2. Close-ended questionnaire – the options or answers are given or
enumerated and the respondents simply check or encircle his answers. It
does not require much effort on the part of the respondents to answer the
questions.
Guidelines in Formulating the Questions for
Questionnaire
 1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal
 2. Use correct grammar
 3. Make all questions unequivocal
 4. Avoid asking biased questions
 5. objectify the response
 6. Relate all the questions to the topic under study
 7. Create categories or classes for approximate answers
 8. Group the questions in logical sequence
 9. Create sufficient number of response categories
Different Tools Used in Generating Data
 2. Interviews – This refers to any person-to-person interaction,
either face-to-face or otherwise between two or more individuals
with a specific purpose in mind. (Kumar, 2011). The data are
collected through direct verbal interaction between the
interviewer and the respondents.
Kinds of Interview
1. Structured Interview the questions are specifically in a fixed list
(called interview guide) and the interviewer asks the questions
in verbatim in the order in which they listed
2. Unstructured – this is dominantly used in qualitative research.
This is more open and flexible, the sequence, and wording are
entirely in the hands of the interviewer.
Different Tools Used in Generating Data
3. Observation – involves the researcher watching and listening to
an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
Types of Observation
1.Non-Participant Observation – This kind of information wherein
the researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but
remains passive observer, watching and listening to the group’s
activities and drawing conclusions from these.
2. Participant observation – when the researcher participates in the
activities of the grouped being observed in the same manner as its
members whether they know that they are being observed or not.
The observer has specific plan for making and recording
observations before he begins collecting data.
Validation of the Research Instrument
 1. Consultation with experts. Comments and suggestions from the
experts are closely observed and considered in improving the
questionnaire and making it a valid tool for data collection.
 2. Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to 30 individuals who
resemble the characteristics of the intended respondents of the study
but who will not be the actual respondents.
 3. Item analysis is done after testing. The accomplished
questionnaires are scored and subjected to a test of reliability.
Validation of Instrument
 Validity - Refers to the appropriateness,
meaningfulness and usefulness on the inferences a
researcher makes.

Three types of validity

1. Face and content validity
2. Concurrent and predictive validity
3. Construct validity
Face and Content Validity
 Primarily based on the logical link between the questions
and the objectives of the study
 Establishment of the link is called face validity
 Assessment of the items of an instrument is called
content validity
 Judgment is based upon subjective logic
 No definite conclusion can be drawn
 Different people may have different opinions on face
and content validity
Concurrent and Predictive validity
 Predictive validity is judged by the degree to which an
instrument can forecast an outcome
 Concurrentvalidity is judged by how well an instrument
compares with a second assessment concurrently done
 Usually, the validity is determined through the use of
correlation coefficient
 Between predicted status and the criterion-----called
validity coefficient
Construct Validity
 Used to ensure that the measure is actually what it is intended to
measure, and no other variables.
 More sophisticated technique
 Based on statistical procedures
 Need to know statistical procedure on how to use this

Example:
 Status of job, nature and remuneration as indicators of job satisfaction
 Conduct a pre test to establish contributions of each construct to the total
variance of job satisfaction
 Total variance contribution is the indicator of degree of validity; the
greater the variance, the higher the validity
 Reliability
 Refers to consistency of the scores obtained. It is
the extent to which an experiment, test or any
measuring procedure yields the same result on
repeated trials
 Reliability factor focus on the ability of the
instrument to produce consistent measurements
 Unreliability factor focuses on the degree of
inconsistency in the measurements made by an
instrument
Methods used to determine reliability of an
instrument
 External consistency procedures
 Test and re-test
 The ratio between the test and re-test scores is an
indicator
 The greater the value of the ratio, the higher the
reliability
A ratio of 1 shows 100 percent reliability (difference
between test and retest)
Internal consistency procedure
 Items measuring the same phenomenon should produce
similar results
 Some Methods used:
 Split half technique (correlation technique)
 Stepped-upreliability (measured by a formula called
Spearman-Brown formula)
Data Gathering Procedure and Statistical
Tools and Treatment
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Practice of Ethics (ethical consideration)
 Distribution/ dissemination
 Retrieval process
 Follow up
 Treatment of the Data
 Statistical or Mathematical treatment
 Depends on the formulated sub-problem
 Statistical treatment requires the use of either descriptive or
inferential statistical tools
Statistical Analysis
 Statistics is the field of science that deals with
organization, interpretation and analyzing of a
data.
 Statistical data refers to the data collected form
different sources through methods
experiments, surveys and analysis. This data is
then interpreted by statistical methods and
formulate for their analysis.
 Statistical data can be classified as quantitative
or qualitative.
 Quantitative data –Answers the question “how
many” or “how much”. It can be measured
numerically and tend themselves to
manipulators through the usual arithmetic
operations.
 Qualitative data are those which are nominal or
categorical and tend to answer the question
“what kind” and cannot be subjected to
arithmetic operations. It does not make sense to
multiply two sexes together or add the socio
economic levels of respondents.
 Types of Data
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
 Note: Statistical tools to be used will depend on the type of data used

1. NOMINAL Data that are used to label or categorize observations, and

which do not have any greater than or less than relations to each other
are nominal in nature. A good example of this is the factor sex, a
naturally dichotomous factor. The numeral 1 may be assigned to every
male respondent, while numeral 2 to every female respondent. In as
much as there is no greater nor less than relationships between the
numerals
Type of Data
 2. ORDINAL DATA - Are rank-ordered data with respect to
a trait or achievement or performance. As such, greater than,
equal to or less than relations characterizes ordinal data.
Ordinal data are the most appropriate for non- parametric
tests as are data that belong to the nominal category.
 Example : The following options to a questionnaire:
Strongly agree 5, Agree 4, Not sure 3, Disagree 2, and
Strongly Disagree 1.
3. Interval Data and Ratio Data
 are data which can be placed along a continuum or scale wherein
distances between points are equal. Raw data that belong to this
category are characterized by greater than, equal to or less than
relations plus the added feature of equality of distances between
intervals. The main difference between interval data and ratio data
lies in the treatment of the zero point. Data that are of the interval
level can be assigned a flexible zero point which does not mean
absolute zero.
 However, for data that are of the ratio scaling, the zero point is
absolute, that is, the factor being measured does not exist. Examples
of interval data are scores obtained in achievement tests wherein
items are of the same level of difficulty. Another grades in
mathematics, mental ability scores, blood pressure reading.
Why is Statistics Important in
Research
 Statistics is important in the interpretation of data. They tell
stories about the data and without such, data are useless and
nothing.
 They establish the level of reliability that the research
activity has undertaken.
 They guide the researcher in drawing out conclusions for the
study; conclusion which might be of interest to various
sectors, and which may give an impact on the corresponding
field of specialization .
 They establish basis for inferences for the
population.
 They make objective, define and precise
description of data. 
Different Types of Statistics Used
in Research
1. Descriptive statistics are generally used to describe personal
variables or essential features of the subject matter of the research ,
especially in describing or analyzing exploratory data.
Frequency and Percentage Distribution

The information derived from such can tell the

relationship between a part to its whole.
Ratios and Ranking

Ratios express also a relationship between two

variables, a part to its whole.
Different Types of Descriptive
Statistics
 Measures of Central Tendency
a. Median-a median is defined as the point in the distribution where half is
lesser. This implies ranking.
c. Mode-the mode is the nominal average. It is used for qualitative
variables and is defined as the variable with the greatest frequency.
d. Weighted Mean- it is used when the option s to the items of the
questionnaire are assigned points
Different Types of Descriptive
Statistics
 The Absolute Mean Deviation
This is another measure of variability that is seldom used in
data analysis.
 The standard Deviation

This is pair of statistics that is always used for interpretation

of data
The variance
The variance is the square of the standard deviation.
Pearson r correlation
 A .When the computed r is positive, a direct and positive relationship
exists. This means that the greater the value of x, the greater the value
of y.
 B. When the computed r is negative, and inverse relationship exists, or
the greater the value of x, the lesser the value of y.

Fundamentals of Statistical Inference

 A statistical inference is important, especially when samples are used
and target populations are large.
 Statistical Inference - is the process of generating or drawing
conclusion about the target population based upon a representative
sample.
Types of statistical inferences
1. Estimation is the process of
estimating the population parameter
through a statistic from a random
sample.
2. Hypothesis testing is the essence of
inferential statistics. It is the process
of determining whether estimates or
statistics approach the parameter or
the true values.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL
TOOLS
Parametric- Non- Parametric-
interval /ratio data nominal/ data

1. t-test - in Chi-square
2. z-test
3. ANOVA FriedMan Test
4. Pearson r-correlation Spearman rho rank
 T-test -used to determine the significant
difference of two variables with small sample
size of respondent
 Z-test - used to determine the significant
difference of two variables with large sample size
of respondent.
 Pearson r- correlation – use to determine the
relationship between variables using interval data
 ANOVA – use in comparing three or more
variables
Bibliography and Reference
Systems
 Borrowed information, quotations,
paraphrases, facts & ideas should be
acknowledged
 Editorial styles for sources citations depend on
academic disciplines
 Two common styles are the MLA and APA
 Citations are in the text of the paper rather in
footnotes or end notes.
Bibliography and References
 Each reference system has its own rules
 MLA and APA both used parenthetical marks
and signal phrases
 However, there are differences in the use of
parenthesis in the citations of the text
APA Reference System: Guide
 Usually requires the use of the past tense or
present perfect tense in the signal phrases
 Signal phrase includes author’s last name
 It is followed by the date of publication in
parentheses.
 Put the page number (preceded by “p” in the
parentheses at the end of quotation
Some rules in APA In-Text
Citations
 When author is not mentioned in the text:
Darwin’s three principal methaphors for the
workings of nature were the tangled bank, the
tree of life and the face of nature (Gould, 1989).
 Enclosed in parenthesis the last name of the author
followed by a comma and the date/year of
publication
Rules: APA
 When the author’s name is mentioned in the text:
Gould (1989) attributes Darwin’s success to his
gift for the appropriate metaphor.
 Enclose
in parenthesis the date, which is placed
immediately after the author’s name.
Rule: APA
 When the text bears direct quotation:
Gould (1989) explains that Darwin used the methopor
of the tree of life “to express the other form of
interconnectedness – genealogical rather than
ecological - and to illustrate both success and failure
in the history of life” (p. 14).
 The publication date and page number are placed
inside the parentheses;
 The word “page” is abbreviated “p.”
A quotation of 40 or more words is cited on free-
standing block of type-written lines with
quotation marks omitted
Gould (1989) explains that Darwin used the metaphor of the tree
of life

To express the other form of

interconnectedness – genealogical rather
than ecological - and to illustrate both
success and failure in the history of life.
Other form of interconnectedness –
genealogical rather than ecological - and to
illustrate both success and failure in the
history of life (p. 14).

The publication date and page number are placed

inside the parentheses
 APA Reference System:
Order and Punctuation Details
BOOK
1. Author ( surname, initials)
2. year of publication
3. Title of Book (underlined)
4. edition,
5. Place of publication
6. Publisher
APA Reference System:
Order and Punctuation of Details
MAGAZINE/JOURNAL/ARTICLES
1. Author ( surname, initials)
2. year of publication
3. Title of article (in single quotation)
4. Title of Magazine (italics or underlined),
5. volume number,
6. issue number,
7. page number
APA Reference System:
Order and Punctuation Details
ELECTRONIC SOURCES -
(BOOK/MAGAZINE/JOURNAL/ARTICLES)

1. Author ( surname, initials)

2. year of publication
3. Title ______
4. Retrieved from ______ (electronic site)
APA Reference System:
Order of the Reference List
 Arrange entries in alphabetical
 References with the same authors in the same order are
arranged by year of publication, the earlier first.
 If an author has more than one work in the same year,
order them alphabetically by title
 Alphabetize corporate authors such as associations or
government agencies by the significant words of the
name. Full Official Name should be used
 If there is no author, the titles moves to the authors
position, and the entry is alphabetized by the first
significant word of the title.
APA Reference System:
Citing References
 When a work has two authors, always cite both
names every time the reference occurs in text.
For works with three, four, or five authors, cite
all sources the first time the references occurs.
In subsequent citations, include only the last
name of first author followed by et.al. and the
year
 For six or more authors, use only the last name
of the first author followed by et.al. Give the
year for the first and subsequent citations.
APA Reference System:
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ENTRIES
1. The reference page is an alphabetical list of all
sources actually used in the research.
2. The first line of the reference entry is type
flushed to the left margin, the succeeding lines
are indented to the right
3. Single space within entries, double space
between entries
4. Should there be more than 10 entries, divide
this into the following: Books, journal,
periodicals, other sources
 Some rules of MLA
 Author named in a signal phrase
Flora Davis reports that a chimp at the Yerkes Primate
Research Center “has combined words into new sentences
that she was never taught” (67).
 Signal phrase Flora Davis reports-provides name of the
author
 Enclosed in parenthesis is the page number
 Notice that no “p” is indicated before the page number
unlike that in APA
 MLA
authorrule
 If is not named in signal phrase
Although the baby chimp lived only a few
hours, Washoe signed to it before it died
(Davis 42).
 Notice:last name of the author and page
number are enclosed in the parenthesis
 MLA Bibliographic
 Clustered List
according to category of
materials used
 Almost similar in the forms of presentation
to that of APA
 Except that the full name of authors are
included in the list of bibliography;
 The date of publication is placed after the
place of publication
Differences in Format of
Bibliographic list (MLA and APA)
MLA style:
Francine Patterson, and Eugene Linden. The
Education of Koko. New York: Holt, 1981.

APA style:
Patterson, F., & Linden, E. (1981). The education
of Koko. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
 Reasons
 To fortoCiting
alert readers Sources
the sources of your
information
 To give credit to the writers from
whom you have borrowed words and
ideas
 Plagiarism : is a form of dishonesty
 Itis borrowing ideas of others without
proper acknowledgment
 Title Page
Research Proposal Format
 Table of Contents
 List of Tables/Figures (if any)
Chapter 1 – The Problem and its Setting
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Framework
3. Conceptual Framework
4. Statement of the Problem
5. Statement of Hypotheses
 7. Scope and Delimitations
Research
8. Proposal
Significance of theFormat
Study
9. Definition of Terms

Chapter 2 - Review of Related Literature and

Studies
 Synthesis
 Research
Chapter Proposal
3 - Research Format
Methodology
1. Research Design
2. Respondents of the Study
3. Population and Sampling
4. Instrumentation and Validation
5. Evaluation and Scoring
6. Data Gathering Procedure
7. Statistical Treatment
Research Proposal Format

 Bibliography
 Proposed Questionnaire
 Other appendices