Design of Superstructure Elements

Design of
Superstructure
Elements
SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPES
The type of superstructure chosen for a bridge can be based on
a variety of factors ranging from maintenance considerations to
personal preference. Specifically, some of the commonly used
criteria in selecting the type of superstructure to be used are:
❏ Material function and availability

❏ Construction cost
❏ Speed of construction and constructability
❏ Design complexity
❏ Maintenance costs and life expectancy
❏ Environmental concerns
❏ Aesthetics
Once a particular type of superstructure gains
acceptance in a geographic region, it develops a certain
critical mass that is difficult to alter in a different
direction.
Although no transportation system is homogenous,

there will definitely exist a predominance of one type
of superstructure system.
The types of superstructures also change with the

bridge span lengths. Each type of superstructure has
span limitations beyond which it will become
uneconomical.
Superstructures generally vary by support type (simply
supported or continuous), design type (slab-on-stringer,
arch, rigid frame, etc.), and material type (steel,
concrete, timber, etc.)
The two principal materials utilized in superstructure
construction are STEEL and CONCRETE.
STEEL
SUPERSTRUCTURE
STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURE
When compared to concrete,
 Steel has the advantage of lighter
weight and more rapid construction.
 Steel also lends itself well to
prefabrication at the factory which
reduces the amount of field labor
for operations such as bolting,
welding, etc.
 Recent advancements in fabrication
methods and materials, especially
with the introduction of weathering
steel, has made steel much more
competitive with concrete.
A superstructure frame is composed of primary and
secondary members. Steel primary members come in a
variety of types, some of which are listed below.
1. Rolled Beam
2. Rolled Beam with Cover Plate
3. Plate Girder
4. Box Girder
5. Steel Rigid Strut Frame
ROLLED BEAM
The rolled beam is a steel girder
which has been formed by hot-
rolling. The most common type
of rolled beam used as a primary
member in highway bridges is
the wide-flange variety.
ROLLED BEAM WITH COVER PLATE
To maintain an economy of material, rolled beams are
sometimes equipped with a rectangular plate, or cover
plate, at the bottom flange. The cover plate increases
the ability of the stringer to resist flexure without
having to use a larger size rolled beam or plate girder.
PLATE GIRDER
A plate girder, like a rolled beam, has an I-type
cross section. Rather than being hot-rolled,
however, the girder is constructed from steel plate
elements which are connected together with
welds, bolts, or rivets.
BOX GIRDER
The box girder is a form of plate girder which combines
two girders into a single unit. A box girder may be
designed as a four-sided box (closed box), or it may be
designed as an open-box where a relatively narrow top
flange is welded on top of each web. Closed box girders
possess excellent torsional stiffness, so they usually do not
require secondary members to provide bracing.
STEEL RIGID STRUT FRAME
A steel bridge with integral steel supporting legs is
another form of structure which utilizes steel as its
principal component. In such a configuration, not only
is the superstructure made of steel, but the
substructure as well.
Concrete Superstructures
Concrete Superstructures
Concrete bridges were generally relegated to short, single-span
structures. By the middle of the last century, however, prestressed
concrete structures began to gain acceptance and the number of
highway bridges constructed with concrete superstructures in-
creased dramatically. In 2003, 47% of all new bridges built in the
U.S. are prestressed concrete bridges. Like steel, concrete
superstructure elements come in a variety of configurations, which
are detailed below.
1. Prestressed Concrete Girder 5. Concrete Rigid Frame

2. Concrete Box Girder 6. Concrete Strut Frame
3. Concrete Slab 7. Concrete Arch
4. Adjacent Prestressed Slab
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDER
The combination of steel with concrete, with one material taking
up the deficiencies of the other, is the basic principal behind
reinforced concrete.
Prestressed concrete takes this characteristic feature one step

further by application of a tensile force to reinforcing tendons.
This has the effect of increasing internal compression in the

concrete beam where tension is anticipated under loading, and
thus reducing or eliminating stresses due to tension once the
beam is loaded. The prestressing force may be applied after the
concrete is poured in the field or before the beam is precast.
When the force is applied to the reinforcing tendons before
the concrete is poured, the beam is said to be pretensioned. If
the force is applied after the concrete has cured, the beam is
called post-tensioned. In post-tensioning, the tendons are
encased in tubes to prevent bonding with the surrounding
concrete. After curing, jacking devices are used to apply the
tensile force.
Location of the prestressed concrete girders
CONCRETE BOX GIRDER
Box girders are a form of prestressed concrete girder. Like their
steel cousins, box girders are good at resisting the effects of
torsion and typically do not require the introduction of bracing
elements. Compared with prestressed I-beams, box girders have
less creep deformation and are easier to position tensile
reinforcement. Because of these characteristics concrete box
girders are well suited for large span lengths.
Example of box girder superstructure bridge, near Tokyo
CONCRETE SLAB
A slab bridge is one in which the structural deck slab itself
represents the superstructure. Conventionally reinforced
concrete slab bridges are common for short spans up to 40 ft
(12 m) in span length.
When longer spans and correspondingly deeper slabs are

required, voids in the slab are introduced to decrease the
weight of the superstructure. Voids can be formed using any
one of a variety of materials ranging from cardboard to
polystyrene tubes. Most voided slab bridges are post-
tensioned. The slab bridge has the advantage of being able to
accommodate skew crossings.
(see image at the next slide)

ADJACENT PRESTRESSED SLAB
Adjacent prestressed concrete slab units can be used for short
spans up to 60 ft (18 m). A 3 to 4 inch (75 to 100 mm) concrete
overlay with reinforcement is usually cast over the slab units.
Slab units are transversely post-tensioned prior to placement of
overlay to form a single bridge deck. The advantage of this type
of bridges is the rapid construction and low costs, which make it
very popular for short span bridges.
(no sample image in the internet)

CONCRETE RIGID FRAME
A concrete rigid frame, like the steel rigid frame, incorporates
the superstructure and substructure into a single integrated
unit. A conventional rigid frame has a deck slab integrated with
abutment walls. This type of structure is usually for very short
spans. A box culvert can be considered as a concrete rigid frame
structure.
CONCRETE STRUT FRAME
A strut-frame type has integrated legs or struts extending from
the superstructure at angles. These structures are useful when
underpass width is an important concern and placement of a
substructure element in the middle of the underpass is
impossible.
CONCRETE ARCH
There are different types of arches. Since arches convert most
loading into compressive forces, concrete, with its excellent
compressive strength, is an ideal material for these types of
structures. Concrete arches can range from short to long span
bridges.
TIMBER
SUPERSTRUCTURES
TIMBER SUPERSTRUCTURES
While timber structures come

nowhere near steel and concrete
structures in terms of number of
bridges in use, they still maintain
a niche in the highway bridge
arena. The use of glulam (glued
laminated) members and the
application of advanced
preservative coatings have made
the use of timber in major
structures feasible, such as
modern highway bridge.
Conventional bridge materials, like concrete, may not be
susceptible to insect and fungi attack, but even these accepted
materials do not react that well when they come in contact with
chlorides. Timber has the advantage of a high strength to weight
ratio and a replenishable material source [Ref. 3.6]. An overview
of glulam timber and the various forms of timber structures is
provided below.
1. Glulam Timber
2. Stress-Laminated Timber Deck
3. Trestle
4. Truss
GLULAM TIMBER
A glulam timber member is created by gluing together two or
more pieces of lumber, no more than 2 in (50 mm) in thickness. In
older timber structures, elements like bridge decks utilized a similar
approach with nail-laminated lumber.
As heavier loads were introduced on these bridges, however, nail-
laminated assemblies would begin to loosen. Also, prior to the
introduction of glulam timber, member sizes were somewhat limited
due to the scarcity of large, individual timbers
STRESS-LAMINATED TIMBER DECK
Stressed-laminated timber deck bridges are composed of 2
inch (50 mm) thick and 8 to 12 inch (200 to 305 mm) height
strips which are transversely stressed with prestressing steel
bars. This type of bridge is similar to concrete slab bridge where
the deck is the primary load carrying member. The timber deck is
normally covered by a waterproofing membrance, and paved
with asphalt pavement as a wearing surface.
TRESTLE
A trestle is a set of timber stringers integrated with a pile or
frame bent. Stringers can have a rectangular cross section,
although glulam I-beam stringers are also used. Previously,
timber decking utilized the nail-laminated approach discussed
earlier. Recently, prefabricated, glulam deck panels which are
placed transverse to the primary members have been utilized
TRUSS
A timber truss bridge can be constructed with a timber truss and
timber decking. It is also possible to utilize steel truss components in
conjunction with a timber deck. One form of truss bridge, common to
timber structures, is the pony truss. A pony truss bridge is a through
truss with no bracing on top. A problem with through trusses, like
this, is that they are prone to impact damage from traffic
Example 2. Timber truss bridge
Example 3. Timber truss bridge
SECONDARY
MEMBERS
Secondary Members
Secondary members act as bracing for primary members. In
general, secondary members are not load bearing elements but
are designed to prevent cross-sectional deformation of the
superstructure frame. In addition to this, secondary members
provide for vertical load distribution between stringers by
permitting the superstructure to work together as a unit.
Secondary members come in three general classes:

 diaphragms,
 lateral bracing, and
 portal/sway bracing.
Listed below are these three major classes of secondary members

and their types and function.
DIAPHRAGMS
A diaphragm is a secondary member attached between stringers, in
the vertical plane, which acts to stiffen the primary member and help
distribute vertical loads. For steel superstructures comprised of rolled
beam or plate girder primary members, a rolled beam diaphragm can
be used. This rolled beam is usually of the channel or wide flange type
crosssection.
Location of Diaphragm in a Stressed-laminated timber deck
bridge
LATERAL BRACING
Bracing located at either the top
flange or bottom flange of a
stringer to prevent lateral
deformation is called lateral
bracing. The bracing is similar in
form to a cross-frame (i.e., laid
out in an X-type configuration)
but is laid out along the length
of the stringer (in the horizontal
plane), rather than its depth.
Lateral bracing is not required at
stringer flanges attached to a
rigid element, such as a concrete
deck or between box girders.
PORTAL AND SWAY BRACING
Portal and sway bracing are transverse bracing elements
used in truss bridges. Both portal and sway bracing are located at
the top series of truss members called the top chord.
Portal bracing differs from sway bracing in that it is located at the

portal (i.e., entrance) of a through-truss. Portal bracing is
designed to accommodate the total end reaction of the lateral
system located at the top chord of the truss, and transfer it to
the substructure components.
Sway bracing is located at intermediate panel points of the top

chord in either a cross or knee brace configuration to provide
lateral support for the truss top chords. Deck trusses require
sway bracing at the truss end and intermediate posts to ensure
truss stability during construction.

Design of Superstructure Elements

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Design of Superstructure Elements

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Design of

❏ Material function and availability

Although no transportation system is homogenous,

The types of superstructures also change with the

1. Prestressed Concrete Girder 5. Concrete Rigid Frame

Prestressed concrete takes this characteristic feature one step

This has the effect of increasing internal compression in the

When longer spans and correspondingly deeper slabs are

(see image at the next slide)

(no sample image in the internet)

While timber structures come

Secondary members come in three general classes:

Listed below are these three major classes of secondary members

Portal bracing differs from sway bracing in that it is located at the

Sway bracing is located at intermediate panel points of the top

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