Organisms Can Be Classified Based On Physical Similarities.: Key Concept

17.
1 The Linnaean System of Classification

KEY CONCEPT
Organisms can be classified based on physical
similarities.
17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification
Linnaeus developed the scientific naming system still
used today.
• Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying
organisms.
White oak:
Quercus alba
• A taxon is a group of organisms in a classification system.

• Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific naming

system.
– uses Latin words
– scientific names always typed in italics (underlined if
written)
– two parts are the genus name and species descriptor
• A genus includes one or more physically similar species.

– Species in the same genus are thought to be closely
related.
– Genus name is always capitalized.
• A species descriptor is the second part of a scientific name.
– always lowercase
– always follows genus
name; never written alone
Tyto alba
• Scientific names help scientists to communicate.

– Some species have very similar common names.
– Some species have many common names.
Sea”horse”??
– Accurately & uniformly name organisms
– Prevents misnomers such as starfish & jellyfish that aren't really fish
– Uses same language (Latin) for all names
Linnaeus’ classification system has eight levels.
• Each level is Domain: Eukarya
included in the
level above it.
• Levels get
increasingly
specific from
kingdom to
species.
The Linnaean classification system has limitations.
• Linnaeus taxonomy doesn’t account for molecular
evidence.
– The technology didn’t exist during Linneaus’ time.
– Linnaean system based only on physical similarities.
• Physical similarities are

not always the result of
close relationships.
• Genetic similarities more
accurately show
evolutionary relationships.
1
1
Which TWO are more closely related?

1
2

17.2 Classification based on Evolutionary Relationships
KEY CONCEPT
Modern classification is based on evolutionary
relationships.
1
4
Basis for Modern Taxonomy

• Homologous (morphological
characters) structures (same
structure, different function)
• Similar embryo development
• Molecular Similarity
(biochemical characters) in
DNA, RNA, or amino acid
sequences in Proteins
1
5
Homologous Structures (BONES in the FORELIMBS) shows

Similarities in mammals.
1
6
Similarities in Vertebrate Embryos

Cladistics is classification based on common ancestry.
• Phylogeny is the evolutionary history for a group of species.
– evidence from living species, fossil record, and
molecular data
– shown with branching tree diagrams
• Cladistics is a common method to make evolutionary trees.

– classification based on common ancestry
– species placed in order that they descended from
common ancestor
• A cladogram is an evolutionary tree made using cladistics.

– A clade is a group of species that shares a common
ancestor.
– Each species
in a clade
shares some
traits with the
ancestor.
– Each species
in a clade has
traits that have
changed.
• Derived characters are traits shared in different degrees by

clade members.
1 Tetrapoda clade
– basis of arranging 2 Amniota clade
species in 3 Reptilia clade

4 Diapsida clade
5 Archosauria clade
cladogram
– more closely
related species
FEATHERS &
TOOTHLESS
BEAKS.
share more SKULL OPENINGS IN

FRONT OF THE EYE &
IN THE JAW
derived characters OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

THE SKULL
– represented on SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE
cladogram as hash EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID
marks FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS
DERIVED CHARACTER
• Nodes represent
the most recent CLADE
common ancestor 1 Tetrapoda clade
2 Amniota clade
of a clade. 3 Reptilia clade
4 Diapsida clade
5 Archosauria clade
• Clades can be
identified by
snipping a branch FEATHERS AND
TOOTHLESS
BEAKS.
under a node. SKULL OPENINGS IN
FRONT OF THE EYE AND
IN THE JAW
OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

THE SKULL
SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE
EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID
NODE FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS
DERIVED CHARACTER
Molecular evidence reveals species’ relatedness.
• Molecular data may confirm classification based on physical
similarities.
• Molecular data may lead scientists to propose a new
classification.
• DNA is usually given the last word by scientists.

+/- Table 0/1 Table
Cladogram
2
4
Dichotomous Keying
• Used to identify organisms
• Characteristics given in pairs
• Read both characteristics
and either go to the next set
of characteristics OR
identify the organism
2
5
Example of Dichotomous Key

1a Tentacles present – Go to 2
1b Tentacles absent – Go to 6
2a Eight Tentacles – Octopus
2b More than 8 tentacles – 3
3a Tentacles hang down – go to 4
3b Tentacles upright–Sea Anemone
4a Balloon-shaped body–Jellyfish
4b Body NOT balloon-shaped - 5
1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton ………go to step 2

b. wings not covered by an exoskeleton ……….go to step 3
2. a. body has a round shape ……….

Coccinella septempunctata
b. body has an elongated shape ………. Camnula pellucida
3. a. wings point out from the side of the body ……….

Aeshna cyanea
b. wings point to the posterior of the body ……….
Musca domestica
17.3 Molecular Clocks
KEY CONCEPT
Molecular clocks provide clues to evolutionary history.
Molecular clocks use mutations to estimate evolutionary
time.
• Mutations add up at a constant rate in related species.
– This rate is the ticking of the molecular clock.
– As more time passes, there will be more mutations.
Mutations add up at a fairly Ten million years later— Another ten million years later—
constant rate in the DNA of one mutation in each lineage one more mutation in each lineage
species that evolved from a
common ancestor.
The DNA sequences from two The mutation rate of this

descendant species show mutations sequence equals one mutation
that have accumulated (black). per ten million years.
DNA sequence from a
hypothetical ancestor
• Scientists estimate mutation rates by linking molecular data

and real time.
– an event known to separate species
– the first appearance of a species in fossil record
Mitochondrial DNA and ribosomal RNA provide two types
of molecular clocks.
• Different molecules have different mutation rates.
– higher rate, better for studying closely related species
– lower rate, better for studying distantly related species
• Mitochondrial DNA is used to study closely related species.

– mutation rate ten times faster than nuclear DNA
– passed down unshuffled from mother to offspring
grandparents
mitochondrial
DNA
nuclear DNA
parents Mitochondrial DNA is

passed down only from
the mother of each

generation,so it is not
subject to recombination.
child
Nuclear DNA is inherited from both
parents, making it more difficult to
trace back through generations.
• Ribosomal RNA is used to study distantly related species.

– many conservative regions
– lower mutation rate than most DNA
17.4 Domains & Kingdoms
KEY CONCEPT
The current tree of life has three domains.
Classification is always a work in progress.
• The tree of life shows our most current understanding.
• New discoveries can lead to changes in classification.
– Until 1866: only two kingdoms, Plantae
Animalia and Plantae
Animalia
Animalia
– 1866: all single-celled
Protista
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
Animalia
Protista
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
– 1938: prokaryotes moved
to kingdom Monera
Monera
Animalia
Protista
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
to kingdom Monera
– 1959: fungi moved to
Monera
own kingdom
Fungi
Animalia
Protista
organisms moved to
kingdom Protista
to kingdom Monera
– 1959: fungi moved to Archea
own kingdom
Fungi Bacteria
– 1977: kingdom Monera
split into kingdoms Bacteria and Archaea
The three domains in the tree of life are Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya.
• Domains are above the kingdom level.
– proposed by Carl Woese based on rRNA studies of
prokaryotes
– domain model more clearly shows prokaryotic diversity
• Domain Bacteria includes prokaryotes in the kingdom

Bacteria.
– one of largest groups
on Earth
– classified by shape,
need for oxygen, and
diseases caused
• Some may cause DISEASE
• Found in ALL HABITATS except
the most extreme ones
• Important decomposers for
environment
• Commercially important in making
cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk,
etc.
• Domain Archaea includes prokaryotes in the kingdom

Archaea.
– cell walls chemically
different from bacteria
– differences discovered by
studying RNA
– known for living in extreme
environments
• Found in:
– Sewage Treatment Plants
– Thermal or Volcanic Vents
– Hot Springs or Geysers that are acid
– Very salty water (Dead Sea; Great Salt
Lake)
• Bacteria and archaea can be difficult to classify.

– transfer genes among themselves outside of
reproduction
– blurs the line bridge to transfer DNA
between “species”
– more research
needed to
understand
prokaryotes
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.

– Kingdom Protista
•Most are unicellular
•Some are multicellular
•Some are autotrophic,
while others are
heterotrophic
•Mostly Aquatic

– Kingdom Plantae
•Multicellular
•Autotrophic
•Absorb sunlight to make glucose –
Photosynthesis
•Cell walls made of cellulose

– Kingdom Plantae
– Kingdom Fungi
• Multicellular, except
yeast
• Absorptive
heterotrophs (digest
food outside their body
& then absorb it)
• Cell walls made of
chitin

– Kingdom Plantae
– Kingdom Fungi
– Kingdom Animalia
• Multicellular
• Ingestive heterotrophs
(consume food & digest it
inside their bodies)
• Feed on plants or animals

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17.

1 The Linnaean System of Classification

• A taxon is a group of organisms in a classification system.

• Binomial nomenclature is a two-part scientific naming

• A genus includes one or more physically similar species.

• Scientific names help scientists to communicate.

• Physical similarities are

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

Which TWO are more closely related?

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

Basis for Modern Taxonomy

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

Homologous Structures (BONES in the FORELIMBS) shows

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

Similarities in Vertebrate Embryos

• Cladistics is a common method to make evolutionary trees.

• A cladogram is an evolutionary tree made using cladistics.

• Derived characters are traits shared in different degrees by

– basis of arranging 2 Amniota clade

species in 3 Reptilia clade

share more SKULL OPENINGS IN

derived characters OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

– represented on SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE

cladogram as hash EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID

marks FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS

common ancestor 1 Tetrapoda clade

OPENING IN THE SIDE OF

SKULL OPENINGS BEHIND THE EYE

EMBRYO PROTECTED BY AMNIOTIC FLUID

NODE FOUR LIMBS WITH DIGITS

• DNA is usually given the last word by scientists.

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

17.1 The Linnaean System of Classification

Example of Dichotomous Key

1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton ………go to step 2

2. a. body has a round shape ……….

3. a. wings point out from the side of the body ……….

The DNA sequences from two The mutation rate of this

• Scientists estimate mutation rates by linking molecular data

• Mitochondrial DNA is used to study closely related species.

parents Mitochondrial DNA is

the mother of each

• Ribosomal RNA is used to study distantly related species.

• Domain Bacteria includes prokaryotes in the kingdom

• Domain Archaea includes prokaryotes in the kingdom

• Bacteria and archaea can be difficult to classify.

• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.

• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.

• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.

• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotes.

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