CXC BIOLOGY

https://
www.universitystudent.org
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 Topics
 1. Nutrition
 2. Biotic and Abiotic factors
 3. Food Chains
 4. Predator/Prey Relationships
 5. Decomposers
 6. Treatment and Control of Diseases
 7. Transport
 8. Reproduction
 9. Continuity and Variation
 10. Food Tests
 11. Ecological Study and Appropriate Sampling Methods
 12. The Eye
 13. Disease
 Types of nutrition
Nutrition
 Classes of nutrition
 Vitamins (organic)
 Photosynthesis (autotrophic nutrition)
 Limiting factors for photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis and respiration
 Heterotrophic nutrition
 Mechanical digestion
 Chemical digestion
 Types of nutrition
• Autotrophic: organisms manufacture food from simple inorganic compounds
 Photosynthesis
 Chemosynthesis

• Heterotrophic: organisms (animals, fungi, most bacteria obtain ready made organic food from their
environment.
 Holozoic nutrition
 Saprophytic nutrition
 Parasitic nutrition

• Which type of nutrition contains the least amount of energy?

Autotrophic nutrition- energy from the sunlight becomes bonded within the
organic molecules formed during autotrophic nutrition. Organic molecules
are thus formed and used in heterotrophic nutrition, containing more energy
than before.
 Nutrients
There are six major nutrients – water, carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals.

Class Sources Functions

Carbohydrates • product of photosynthesis • energy supply: respiration
• sweet foods, potatoes, • storage: starch in plants;
yams, rice, etc. glycogen in animals
• structural: cellulos cell
walls in plant cells
Lipids • sugars from photosynthesis • used as an energy supply
• butter, vegetable oils, nuts, after carbohydrates
margarine, etc. • storage: oils in seeds; fat
under animal skin
Proteins • manufactured from sugars • growth and repair
• meat, fish, milk, eggs, • enzymes
cheese, peas, beans • hormones
• energy supply after
carbohydrates and lipids
Vitamin Sources Functions Symptoms of defeciency
A Animal fats, eg. egg yolk, cod Keeps skin and mucous Dry, unhealthy skin and
liver, butter membrane healthy cornea. Mucous membranes
Aids vision in dim light degenerates. Reduced
resistance to infection.
Xerophthalmia (permanent
blindness)
B1 Cereals, flour, liver Assists in respiration Beri-beri (weak muscles)
B3 Liver, yeast extract, Assists in respiration Pellagra (digestive and
wholemeal flour nervous system disorders,
diarrhoea, skin disorders)
C Citrus fruits, cherry, Raw Keeps body tissues healthy, Scurvy (bleeding gums, loss of
green vegetables especially skin and connective teeth, painful muscles and
tissue joints)

D Animal fats Aids in the absorption of Rickets (soft, weak bones with
Also manufactured in the body calcium and phosphorous from swollen ends, poor teeth)
by the action of sunlight on the ileum; important in the
skin formation of bones and teeth

K Liver, green vegetables Aids in bloodclotting Prolonged bleeding when cut

 Autotrophic nutrition: Photosynthesis
sunlight energy
• 6CO2 + 6H2O ------------------------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
by chorophyll

• The combination of carbon dioxide and water using sunlight energy absorbed by
chlorophyll molecules to form glucose with the release of oxygen as a by-product.
• Light dependent stage and light independent stage
• Light dependent stage: Photons (light energy) are absorbed by chlorophyll molecules
(found in chloroplasts and used to split water molecules (H 2O) into hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. Oxygen atoms are combined an then released as gas. Hydrogen is used to make
ATP and NADPH (required for the light independent reactions)
• Light independent stage: hydrogen atoms reduce carbon dioxide molecules to form
glucose with the assistance of enzymes (Calvin cycle)
Photosynthesis

https://
ssec.si.edu/
stemvisions-
blog/what-
photosynthesis
 Required conditions
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): diffused through leaf laminae
 Laminae have broad, flat thin surfaces are adapted to facilitate diffusion of
carbon dioxide from the environment.
• Water (H2O): absorbed by roots from the soil
• Sunlight energy: absorbed by chlorophyll
• Chlorophyll: within chloroplasts
• Enzymes:
• Mineral elements
• Correct temperature (0℃ to 40℃)
External Structure of the Leaf

https://ombiology4u.blogspot.com/2018/06/external-structure-of-leaf.html
 Internal Structure

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dorsiventral-cross-section-of-a-dicot-leaf-with-the-adaxial-surface-at-the-
top-This-is_fig2_342371923
Fate of Glucose formed in Photosynthesis
• Respiration: by leaf cells
• Converted to starch, then stored by leaf cells, which is then converted to glucose.
• Converted to sucrose and transported to other parts of the plant, mainly storage
organs and growing parts, where it is further converted to
 glucose: for respiration
 cellulose: cell walls
 starch: for storage
 amino acids and proteins: for growth
 lipids: for storage
 other substances, eg. vitamins
 Limiting Factors
• factor which is in shortest supply
• Light
• Carbon dioxide
• Temperature
• Water
 Testing for starch
• Heat a plant leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds (this kills the leaf, stopping any chemical reactions)
• Add the leaf to boiling ethanol in a water bath for a few minutes (the boiling ethanol dissolves the
chlorophyll and removes the green colour from the leaf - it turns white so it is easy to see the change in
colour)
• Wash with water to rehydrate and soften the leaf and spread onto a white tile
• Add iodine solution from a dropping pipette
• After a few minutes, the parts of the leaf that contain starch turn the iodine from brown to blue/black.
 Holozoic nutrition
• Indigestion: The intake of food into the body.
• Digestion: Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into soluble components
for absorption.
• Absorption: The diffusion and uptake of he soluble digested food substances into
body fluids ;takes place in ileum and colon
• Assimilation: The incorporation of absorbed foods into the cells of the body to
form new tissues.
• Egestion
 Digestion
• Occurs in the alimentary canal (tube 8-9 metres long running from mouth to anus)
• Involves mechanical breakdown of food followed by chemical breakdown of food
molecules.

Mechanical Digestion
• Mastication, or chewing, as well as tongue movements that help break food into
smaller bits and mix food with saliva.
• Makes the food smaller to increase both surface area and mobility
• Mechanical churning of food in the stomach serves to further break it apart and
expose more of its surface area to digestive juices.
• Segmentation, which occurs mainly in the small intestine, consists of localized
contractions of circular muscle of the muscular layer of the alimentary canal
• Peristalsis: involuntary contractions and relaxations of muscles of esophagus,
stomach and intestines to break down food for mobilization through the digestive
tract
The Alimentary Canal

https://healthjade.net/
alimentary-canal/
 Chemical Digestion
• Digestive secretions break down complex food molecules into chemical
components, e.g., from proteins to amino acids
• Secretions typically contain water, various enzymes, acids, and salts
• Chemical bonds that hold the food together are broken, which allows food to be
broken down into small, digestible parts
• Three types of digestive enzymes:
 Carbohydrases: polysaccharides/disaccharides  monosaccharides
 Proteases: proteins  amino acids
 Lipases: lipids  fatty acids + glycerol
Summary of Chemical Digestion

from Biology: A Concise

Revision for CXC by Anne
Chemical Digestion

Jamaica observer limited: CXC lecture

series Biology by Allison C. Peart
 Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates,
Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic Acids
• Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and the duodenum through the action of three main enzymes:
pepsin, secreted by the stomach, and trypsin and chymotrypsin, secreted by the pancreas.
• During carbohydrate digestion the bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and
pancreatic amylase.
• The digestion of certain fats begins in the mouth, where short-chain lipids break down into
diglycerides because of lingual lipase. The fat present in the small intestine stimulates the release of
lipase from the pancreas, and bile from the liver enables the breakdown of fats into fatty acids.
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Food Chains, Predator/Prey
Relationships, Decomposers
 Food chains
• Shows the relationship between organisms in an cosystem; flow/transfer of energy from the sun through the series of
organisms as they feed.
• Food webs are a series of inter-related food chains. Organisms are represented at various feeding levels called
“trophic levels”.
• Producers make their own food via photosynthesis using sunlight.
• Consumers depend on other organisms for food (heterotrophic)
• Primary consumers (herbivores) depend on producers; secondary consumers depend on primary onsumers.
• PRODUCER -------->RIMARY CONSUMER-------->SECONDARY CONSUMER
• eg. SEAWEED-------->PERIWINKLE-------->HERRING GULL

• -------------> ------------->

http://clipart-library.com/seaweed-cliparts.html
https://www.jungledragon.com/specie/15558/
common_periwinkle.html
https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Herring_Gull/id
https://www.quora.com/What-would-happen-in-the-absence-of-the-food-web
 Pyramid of energy, biomass or numbers
• Energy is stored in organic foods and passed on through food chains. At each link in a food chain,
energy and biomass are lost.
• Some organic matter is lost in excretion and some is used in respiration. The energy released is used
to carry out life processes.
• Energy, biomass or number of organisms at successive levels in a food chain may be represented by
pyramids

https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/pyramid-of-biomass-indicates-a-biotic-potential-class-10-biology-cbse-
5f481dfc7daf456044b1d781
 Food Pyramid/ Pyramid of numbers
• Shows the change in number of consumers as you go along the food chain.

https://byjus.com/biology/different-types-ecological-pyramids/ https://www.blendspace.com/lessons/Nma3lgO4yIvfIw/ecology-pyramids
Food cycles (Nutrient cycles)

https://www.sciencefacts.net/carbon-cycle.html
1. Green plants use photosynthesis in the air to make carbohydrates via photosynthesis.
2. Animals feed on carbohydrates (carbon containing compound).
3. Both plants and animals respire, resulting in the production and release of carbon dioxide to the air.
4. Death and decay in both plants and animals which are then acted upon by decomposers in the soil, i.e
bacteria and fungi.
5. Combustion of fossil fuel.
6. Fossilisation or preservation of the remains of living organisms
 Saprophytes
• These are decomposers. They feed on dead organisms or their remains
• The role of saprophytes is to recycle nutrients by breaking down the dead bodies
of organisms to minerals.

Importance of Decomposers
1. They remove dead plants and animals, which results in the release of nitrates
and other minerals from their bodies into the soil
2. Minerals are vital for the healthy growth of plants. Lack of minerals would
decrease the fertility of the soil. This would result in loss of plant life
3. This would further collapse food chains because energy flow is hindered.
 Prey/Predator Relationships
• Predator: Kills another animal (prey) for food.
• Predators are adapted to kill their prey
• Some adaptations are:
 Highly developed senses
 Sharp, piercing teeth or mouthparts
 Rapid movement
• Prey are also adapted to protect themselves against predation
 Sharp senses
 Rapid reactions
 Camouflage
 Protective body coverings
 Mimicry of poisonous species
• Predator and prey evolve together, eg. In a snowy environment, the polar bear is white to avoid being
noticed as it approaches the seal, and the seal pup is white to avoid being noticed by the bear.
 Examples
• lion and zebra • Tiger shark and Green sea turtle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKAHBkclfDk

• bear and fish

https://necsi.edu/predator-prey-relationships#:~:text=Some%20examples%20of%20predator%20and,and%20lettuce%2C
%20grasshopper%20and%20leaf.
 Predator vs. Parasite
• Parasite: a generally smaller organism that is highly dependent on a host for survival,
while harming it in the process, eg. Malaria caused by the Plasmodium parasite ,
tapeworm in humans.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria

• Predator: organism that directly kills another organism (prey) for food.

https://necsi.edu/predator-prey-relationships
https://
www.majordifference
s.com/2016/08/
differences-between-
predation-and-
2016
2017
 Transport
• Structure and functions of blood
• Blood vessels
• Transport system in man
• The heart
• The lymphatic system
• Transport in flowering plants
 Structure and functions of blood
• Consists of plasma and blood cell (erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelets)
• Plasma:
 90% water
 Contains mineral salts, glucose, amino acids, soluble fats (lipids) and proteins
 Transports nitrogenous wastes, drugs, carbon dioxide and hormones
 Forms lymph

• Erythrocytes:
 Red blood cells
 Transports oxygen

• Leucocytes:
 White blood cells
 Destroy invading bacteria, viruses, etc.
• Platelets:
 Small cell fragments that help in the clotting mechanism of blood. This is aided by fibrinogen

Functions of blood
1. Transport:
 contents of plasma
 oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin in erythrocytes
 small amounts of carbon dioxide also in red blood cells

2. Defense: performed mainly by the white blood cells and platelets

 Granulocytes (phagocytes) engulf germs.
 Lymphocytes produce antibodies or special chemicals that act on foreign proteins or antigens.
 Monocytes attack and breakdown germs and bacteria.
 Platelets helps in blood clotting.

3. Metabolic activities
 Blood vessels
• Arteries
 Carries blood from the heart to all parts of the body
 Walls are very thick, elastic and muscular
 small lumen

• Capillaries
 Smallest branches of the circulatory system
 Thin walls- one cell layer thick

• Veins
 carries blood from all parts of the body to the heart from the capillaries
 walls have less elasticity than the arteries
Artery vs. Vein

https://microbiologynotes.com/differences-between-artery-and-vein/
 Transport System in Man
• Arteries transport blood rich in oxygen.
• Veins carry blood rich in carbon dioxide/ deoxygenated blood.
• There are some exceptions: pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein.
• Pulmonary artery takes deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs.
• Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart.
• The aorta is the largest artery; the vena cava is the largest vein
 The Heart

https://www.medicinenet.com/heart_how_the_heart_works/article.htm
• Consists of four chambers: two atria and two ventricles.
• The atium is separated from the right ventricle by a valve with three tooth-shaped
flaps (tricuspid valve). On the left side, there is the bicuspid or mitral valve.
• The vena cava empty blood from the body into the right atrium.
• The pulmonary veins empty blood from the lungs into the left atrium.
• The pulmonary artery takes blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
• The aorta takes blood from the left ventricle to the arteries which “feed” the
organs.
 Pumping action of the heart
• Diastole: heart muscle is relaxed
• Systole: state of contraction
• Atrial systole: contraction of the atria
• Atrial diastole: relaxation of the atria
• Ventricular systole: contraction of the ventricles
• Ventricular diastole: relaxation of ventricles.
N.B. For blood to enter, there must be space to accomodate it. Therefore, the heart must be in a state of
relaxation/diastole.
1. Blood enters the relaxed heart from the vena cavae into the right atrium and from the pulmonary veins into the
left atrium.
2. A special type of tissue, ths pacemaker, is ideally placed in the muscles of the right atrium, to initiate heart
beat
3. A wave of excitation spreads across from the pacemaker into the muscles of the right atrium to the muscles of
the left atrium, causing them to contract simultaneously.
4. After receiving blood, the blood is pumped from the atria, at the same time through the tricuspid and biscuspid
valves into the relaxed ventricles.
5. By this time, the wave of excitation which aids in contraction of the heart muscle has traveled from the
muscles of the atria through a special tissue, the Bundle of His in the septum
6. The wave of excitation then spreads around the muscle of the ventricles, causing them, now filled with blood,
to contract.
7. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are held closed to prevent back-flow into the atria and causing the blood to
flow upwards through the semi-lunar valves which are at the base of the pulmonary artery and the aorta.
8. Blood on the right is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs to be oxygenated and on the left
through the aorta, rich in oxygen, to the arteries that “feed” the organs.
 Transport in flowering plants

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-9-plant-biology/untitled-6/xylem-structure.html
How substances are transported in plants?
• Water enters the root of the plant via root hairs, which are formed from the epidermal
layer of the plant.
• It follows a concentration gradient and moves from a high concentration of water in
the soil to a low concentration of water in the root hair cells. (osmosis)
*Remember osmosis is a special type of diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable medium from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
• After passing the root of the plant, the water is taken up by the stem to the leaves via
xylem vessels.

https://biology-igcse.weebly.com/passage-of-water-through-root-stem-and-leaf.html
• Narrow tubes, empty tubes of the of the xylem vessel allows water to rise by capillarity.
• Xylem vessels are joined end to end, which facilitates a continuous flow of water from the root.
• Active transport is used for the uptake of salts into the plant from a low concentration in the soil to a high
concentration in the root.
• However, energy is expended for the salts to go against their concentration gradient. This is in the form of
ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
• Active transport takes place in the phloem

http://lifeofplant.blogspot.com/2011/12/active-
transport.html
 Transpiration
• Water is then lost by transpiration, which is the evaporation of water from the plant leaves.
• This then creates a vacuum, drawing up more water from the xylem to replace the water that was already lost.
• This “pull” is referred to as “transpiration pull”.
• Root pressure/root push also plays a role in transpiration becauser water which is already in the root is forced
or pushed up through the plant. Root pressure is a force or the hydrostatic pressure generated in the roots that
help in driving the fluids and other ions from the soil in upwards directions into the plant’s vascular tissue –
Xylem.

https://plantlet.org/transpiration-mechanism-in-plant-body/
 Transpiration rate
• Transpiration rate is affected by external environmental factors, such as temperature,
light intensity, humidity and windspeed.
• Why?

Testing Transpiration Rate

• A leafy shoot is selected from a plant that does not wilt quickly.
• The shoot should be cut under water to prevent air bubbles from entering to disrupt the
flow of water.
• Ensure that the other factors not being tested is under control.
Methods of measuring transpiration rate
• Weighing method: A small light weight potted plant can be weighed before and after the
end of a certain period of time. The soil surface and the pot should be fully covered to
prevent evaporation from the surfaces other than the plant. The loss in weight by the plant
during that time is due to the loss of water by transpiration.
• Potometer method: A device measures the water taken in by a plant.

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-9-plant-biology/untitled-6/plant-experiments.html
2019

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