• FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

A. METABOLISM OF GLUCOSE
• Excess glucose is converted with the help of insulin into
glycogen and stored in the liver cells and the muscle
tissues.
• When there is a decrease in the blood sugar level, the
glycogen is converted back to glucose with the help of a
hormone, glucagon and released into the bloodstream.
• With the help of the hormones, insulin and glucagon, the
liver actually helps to regulate the amount of glucose in the
blood.
• B. METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS
• Amino acids are transported to all parts of the body for
the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, hormones and the
replacement of damaged tissues.
• Since excess amino acids cannot be stored by the body,
they are DEAMINATED into two parts: the amino part
and the carbohydrate part. The carbohydrate part is
converted into glycogen and stored in the liver cells and
muscle tissues whereas the amino part is converted
into urea and transported to the kidneys for excretion.
• C. PRODUCTION OF BILE
• The liver produces bile which helps to emulsify fats
globules into tiny fat droplets.
• Note: Emulsification occurs in the duodenum.
• D. STORAGE OF IRON
• The iron from the breakdown of haemoglobin is
stored in the liver.
• It is used for the synthesis of new haemoglobin
molecules.
• E. EXCRETION OF BILE PIGMENTS
• The breakdown of haemoglobin produces bile pigments (called
bilirubin and biliverdin).
• Both pigments are excreted into the duodenum as bile
pigments (The colour of the faeces is actually due to these bile
pigments).
• F. SYNTHESIS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
• Plasma proteins such a s fibrinogen, serum globulin and serum
albumin are synthesized by the liver from amino acids.
• Fibrinogen together with other proteins plays a very important
role in blood clotting.
• G. DETOXIFICATION
• The liver removes 95% of the alcohol from the blood. The other
5% of the alcohol in the blood leaves the body in perspiration, in
the urine and in the breath.
• The alcohol contains sugar and this sugar can be oxidised in the
liver to release energy.
• Overconsumption of alcohol may lead to obesity since the surplus
sugar in the alcoholic drinks cannot be oxidised. So, instead the
surplus is converted into fats and stored in the body.
• H. STORAGE OF VITAMINS
• Vitamins A and D are stored in the liver.
• I. RESERVOIR FOR BLOOD
• The blood spaces and network of blood capillaries
in the liver hold a large volume of blood.
• J. SOURCE OF HEAT ENERGY
• The liver is metabolically active. Hence it produces
a large amount of heat energy.
• The heat energy is distributed to all parts of the
body by the bloodstream and helps in maintaining
the body temperature
• ASSIMILATION:
Blood transports the digested food products round the body after they are being
absorbed by the villi in the ileum. They are then taken up by cells. The UPTAKE
and USE of the products of digestion is called ASSIMILATION.

A. ASSIMILATION OF GLUCOSE
• Glucose is used as fuel by all respiring cells. Energy is produced as a result of
respiration and used in various cellular activities.
• Excess glucose is converted into glycogen with the help of Insulin and stored in
the liver cells and muscle tissues in the form of glycogen granules. When the body
needs energy or when the blood sugar level decreases, the glycogen in the liver
will be converted back to glucose and released into the blood circulatory system.
• If the stored glycogen is not used for more than 6 hours, it may be converted to
fats and stored in the adipose tissues.
• B. ASSIMILATION OF FATS
• A portion of the absorbed fats are stored in
the adipose tissues as fat droplets.
• Some are used in the synthesis of cell
membrane and the rest are used for energy
(only if the body is in short of carbohydrate as
a source of energy).
• C. ASSIMILATION OF AMINO ACIDS
• Amino acids serve as the basic units in the synthesis of large protein
molecules. The proteins may be used for growth and development.
• Enzymes and hormones are also synthesized from amino acids.
• Excess amino acids cannot be stored. They are broken down in the
liver into the amino part and the carbohydrate part. The amino part
will then be transported to the kidney in the form of UREA for
excretion whereas the carbohydrate part will be converted into
glycogen and stored in the liver cells and muscle tissues.
• The process in which EXCESS AMINO ACIDS are broken down in the
liver is called DEAMINATION.
• EGESTION
The residues of food that cannot be digested or
absorbed leave the small intestine and pass into
the large intestine. There, water and vitamins
(synthesised by bacteria) are absorbed and waste
material is compacted into faeces. The faeces is
propelled along the colon and rectum. When the
anal sphincter is relaxed, the faeces is expelled.
This process is called defaecation or egestion.
• DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
• The duodenum is the first few feet of the small
intestine. We can say that it is the most active
part of the digestive system since all types of
food are digested here. The liver and the
pancreas are playing very important role here.
Before we discuss digestion in the duodenum,
lets discuss the liver and the pancreas briefly.
• THE LIVER
• The role of the liver in digestion is to
manufacture BILE.
• Bile is a green watery fluid containing NO
ENZYMES. It contains BILE PIGMENTS (hence
the green colour) formed from the breakdown
of haemoglobin in the liver. It also contains
BILE SALTS which helps to emulsify fats.
• What is EMULSIFICATION? The breakdown of fat
globules into smaller fat droplets (to increase the
surface area so as to facilitate enzyme action). Note
that, emulsification only breaks the fats physically
but it does not change the fats chemically.
• After the bile is manufactured it is then stored in the
GALL BLADDER. The presence of food in the
duodenum triggers the secretion of bile from the
gall bladder into the duodenum through the bile
duct.
• EMULSIFICATION IS JUST LIKE CUTTING A BIG
CHUNK OF BUTTER INTO SMALLER CUBES.
THEY ARE ONLY DIFFERENT PHYSICALLY BUT
STILL THE SAME CHEMICALLY. AND THINK!
WHICH WILL MELT DOWN FASTER, THE CHUNK
OR THE CUBES? OF COURSE THE CUBES RIGHT?
SIMILAR TO FAT GLOBULES AND FAT DROPLETS,
ENZYME REACTION WILL BE FASTER ON THE
DROPLETS RATHER THAN ON THE GLOBULES.
• THE PANCREAS
• The important role of the pancreas in digestion is
to produce PANCREATIC JUICE.
• Pancreatic juice contains SODIUM HYDROGEN
CARBONATE, PANCREATIC AMYLASE, LIPASE and
TRYPSINOGEN.
• The sodium hydrogen carbonate helps to
neutralise the acidic chyme once it enters the
duodenum
• WHAT HAPPENS IN THE DUODENUM?
• As mentioned earlier, the duodenum is very active since all types
of food are digested here.
• Apart from the BILE and the PANCREATIC JUICE, the duodenum
itself secretes the INTESTINAL JUICE produced by the intestinal
glands in the wall of the duodenum itself.
• The intestinal juice contains ENTEROKINASE, EREPSIN, MALTASE,
SUCRASE, LACTASE and LIPASE.
• So all three juices are actually working together in the duodenum
to digest all types of food present in the chyme. To make our life
easier, lets discuss the roles of the contents of the juices by the
types of food they work on.
• CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
• The remaining undigested starch from the mouth
is digested by the pancreatic amylase into
maltose and the maltose is further digested into
glucose by maltase.
• Lactose is digested into glucose and galactose by
lactase.
• Sucrose is digested into glucose and fructose by
sucrase.
• PROTEIN DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
• Trypsinogen is first activated into trypsin by
enterokinase.
• Trypsin then digests proteins into
polypeptides.
• Polypeptides are then digested further by
erepsin into amino acids.
• FATS DIGESTION IN THE DUODENUM
• Bile first emulsify fat globules into fat droplets
(SURFACE AREA!!!).
• The fat droplets are then digested chemically
by lipase into FATTY ACIDS and GLYCEROL.
• END PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION
• Carbohydrates --> GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE and
GALACTOSE
• Proteins --> AMINO ACIDS
• Fats --> FATTY ACIDS and GLYCEROL
• NOW, THE MOLECULES ARE SMALL ENOUGH
TO BE ABSORBED BY THE VILLI IN THE
ILEUM!!!
• DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH
• The stomach has a strong muscular walls. The muscles
contract and relax to churn the food an mix it with the
enzymes and mucus. The mixture is called CHYME.
• The presence of food in the stomach, triggers the
gastric glands (in the wall of the stomach) to secrete
GASTRIC JUICE.
• The gastric juice contains PEPSINOGEN (inactive form
of pepsin), HYDROCHLORIC ACID and MUCUS.
• The function of the hydrochloric acid is to provide acidic
medium for the pepsin to function well (Pepsin works well at
pH 2). Apart from this, it also kills any bacteria coming along
with the food and activates the inactive pepsinogen into
PEPSIN (REMEMBER these three functions of the
hydrochloric acid). (Note: The salivary amylase from the
mouth is denatured in the stomach? WONDER WHY?)
• The mucus protects the stomach wall from being attacked by
the acid (REMEMBER the nature of an acid? CORROSIVE!!!)
• Any proteins present in the chyme is digested by the pepsin
into POLYPEPTIDES.
• NOTE: IN THE STOMACH, ONLY PROTEINS ARE
DIGESTED CHEMICALLY (ALSO PHYSICALLY DUE
TO THE STOMACH MUSCLE CONTRACTION).
STARCH AND FATS ARE NOT DIGESTED
CHEMICALLY IN THE STOMACH AS THE
STOMACH DO NOT PRODUCE ENZYMES THAT
CAN WORK ON STARCH AND FATS!
• DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH AND OESOPHAGUS
• DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH
• Once ingested, the food is first broken down into smaller
pieces (physical digestion - chewing action with the help
of the teeth) so as to increase the surface area and this
in turn facilitates chemical digestion.
• The presence of food in the mouth triggers the salivary
glands to secrete saliva.
• Saliva contains water, mucus and the enzyme, amylase.
• The water helps to soften the food whereas the mucus lubricates the
food (bolus) so that the bolus can be swallowed into the oesophagus.
• The enzyme, amylase digests starch in the food into maltose. Since the
bolus is not kept in the mouth for a very long time, some of the starch
is still remain undigested.
• REMEMBER: Only starch is digested in the mouth (though not all)
whereas proteins and fats are not, since there are no enzymes in the
saliva that can digest them.
• The bolus is then swallowed into the oesophagus through the pharynx.
• Swallowing action causes the epiglottis to close the mouth of the
trachea. This prevents food from entering the trachea during
swallowing.
• DIGESTION IN THE OESOPHAGUS
• No chemical digestion occurs in the oesophagus because
there are no enzymes produced by the oesophagus.
However starch digestion from the mouth continues as the
bolus moves down the oesophagus. But not all the starch
is digested as the bolus only stays in the oesophagus very
briefly.
• Physical digestion continues as the circular and
longitudinal muscles contract and relax alternately. This
breaks the bolus further physically and at the same time
helps to move the bolus down into the stomach.
• THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
• Before discussing chemical digestion along the digestive tract, it is better to know the
parts in your digestive system first (Actually it helps, if you can memorize the figure
and draw it freely).

From the following figure, it can be seen clearly that your digestive system consists of
two main parts:
• The ALIMENTARY CANAL. This is the muscular tube (consisting of the circular and
longitudinal muscles) in which digestion takes place. It is about 8 metres long, running
from your mouth to your anus and has several distinct parts each one fulfilling an
important role in digestion.
• The ASSOCIATED ORGANS. These associated organs consist of the salivary glands, liver,
gall bladder, gastric glands (in the stomach), and pancreas. No digestion takes place in
these associated organs except the stomach. These organs however play a very
important role in chemical digestion since they produce enzymes and chemicals which
help to facilitate chemical digestion.