Human

Anatomy
Chapter 13

The Nervous
System:
Neural Tissue
 Introduction

• Nervous System Characteristics

– Controls and adjust the activity of the body
– Provides swift but brief responses
 Introduction

• The nervous system includes:

– Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Associated with the brain and the spinal cord
– Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Associated with the tissue outside the CNS
 An Overview of the Nervous System

• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) can

be subdivided into:
– Afferent: Brings sensory information toward
the CNS
• Which can be further subdivided into somatic and
visceral
– Efferent: Carries motor commands away from
the CNS
• Which can be further subdivided into somatic
nerves and autonomic nerves
Figure 13.1 The Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Brain
Spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Peripheral nerves
 An Overview of the Nervous System

• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

– Afferent
• Sensory portion: monitors skeletal muscles and
joints
• Visceral portion: monitors smooth muscles,
cardiac muscle, and other internal organs
– Efferent
• Somatic nerves: controls skeletal muscle
contraction
• Autonomic nerves: controls internal organ
activities
 An Overview of the Nervous System

• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

– The autonomic nerves can be further
subdivided to form:
• Parasympathetic nerves: cause pupil
constriction, decrease heart rate, and tense the
urinary bladder (for example)
• Sympathetic nerves: cause pupil dilation,
increase heart rate, and relax urinary bladder
(for example)
 Figure 13.2 A Functional Overview of the Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(brain and spinal cord)
Information
processing

Sensory Motor
information commands
within within
afferent efferent
division PERIPHERAL division
NERVOUS Includes
SYSTEM

Somatic nervous Autonomic

system nervous system

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division

Special sensory Somatic sensory

receptors (provide receptors (monitor
sensations of smell, skeletal muscles, joints,
taste, vision, skin surface; provide
balance, and position sense and
hearing) touch, pressure, pain, Skeletal
muscle • Smooth
and temperature muscle
sensations) • Cardiac
muscle
Visceral sensory receptors (monitor • Glands
internal organs, including those
of cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems)

RECEPTORS EFFECTORS
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue

• Neural tissue consists of two cell types:

– Neurons
• Nerve cells that are responsible for the transfer
and processing of information in the nervous
system
• Consist of a soma, axon, and dendrites
– Neuroglia
• Supporting cells
• Protect the neuron
Figure 3.23a Histology of Neural Tissue

Brain
Cell body Nucleus of
neuron
Nucleolus
Spinal cord

Axon

Dendrites

Diagrammatic view of a representative neuron

 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Functions of Neuroglia
– Provide the framework for the neural tissue
– Maintain the intercellular environment
– Act as phagocytes
– Over 100 billion
– Roughly five times the number of neurons
– Also called glial cells
– Have the ability to reproduce
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuroglia Cells
– Neuroglia cells of the CNS
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Microglia
• Ependymal cells
– Neuroglia cells of the PNS
• Satellite cells
• Schwann cells
 Figure 13.4 The Classification of Neuroglia

Neuroglia

are found in

Peripheral Nervous System Central Nervous System

contains contains

Satellite cells Schwann cells Oligodendrocytes Astrocytes Microglia Ependymal cells

Surround neuron cell Surround all axons in Myelinate CNS Maintain blood–brain Remove cell Line ventricles
bodies in ganglia; PNS; responsible for axons; provide barrier; provide structural debris, wastes, (brain) and central
regulate O2, CO2, myelination of structural support; regulate ion, and pathogens canal (spinal cord);
nutrient, and peripheral axons; framework nutrient, and dissolved-gas by phagocytosis assist in producing,
neurotransmitter levels participate in repair concentrations; absorb and circulating, and
around neurons in process after injury recycle neurotransmitters; monitoring
ganglia form scar tissue after injury cerebrospinal fluid
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuroglia of the CNS
– Astrocytes
• Have a large number of cytoplasmic processes
• Control the chemical content of the interstitial
environment
• Maintain the blood–brain barrier
• Isolate the neurons from general circulation
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuroglia of the CNS
– Oligodendrocytes
• Cytoplasmic extensions contact the somas or
axons
• Cytoplasmic extensions tie axons together in a
sheath of myelin
– Microglia
• Phagocytic cells
• Protect the neuron by removing waste and debris
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuroglia of the CNS
– Ependymal cells
• Line the ventricles of the brain
• Line the central canal of the spinal cord
• Monitor the CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
composition
• Some ependymal cells secrete CSF
 Figure 13.5 Histology of Neural Tissue in the CNS
CENTRAL CANAL

Ependymal
cells

Gray
matter

Neurons

Microglial
cell

Myelinated
axons

Internode

Myelin Oligodendrocyte
(cut) Astrocyte

Axon Axolemma
White
matter
Myelin sheath
gap

Unmyelinated
axon

Basal lamina

Capillary
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuroglia of the PNS
– Satellite cells
• Regulate the exchange of material between the
cell body and the environment
– Schwann cells
• Also called neurolemmocytes
• Form a myelin sheath
Figure 13.7 Satellite Cells and Peripheral Neurons

Nerve cell body

Nucleus
Satellite cells
Connective
tissue

Peripheral ganglion LM  25
Figure 13.8a Schwann Cells and Peripheral Axons

Axon hillock
Nucleus
Axon

Myelinated
internode Initial
segment Dendrite
(unmyelinated)

Myelin sheath gaps

Schwann
cell nucleus

Axon

neurolemma

Myelin
covering
internode

Axon

Axolemma

neurolemma

Axons

Myelin

Myelin sheath TEM  20,600

A single Schwann cell forms the myelin sheath

around a portion of a single axon. This situation
differs from the way myelin forms inside the CNS.
Compare with Figure 13.5.
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuron Structure
– Neurons consist of:
• Axons
• Soma (cell body)
• Dendrites
• Terminal boutons
 Figure 13.3 A Review of Neuron Structure

Dendrites Cell body Axon Terminal boutons

Stimulated by Contains the nucleus, Conducts nerve impulse Affect another neuron
environmental changes or mitochondria, ribosomes, and (action potential) toward or effector organ
the activities of other cells other organelles and inclusions synaptic terminals (muscle or gland)

Axon hillock

Mitochondrion

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Nissl bodies
(clusters of RER
and free ribosomes)

Dendritic
spines
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue

• Details of Neuron Structure

– Soma consists of:
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Ribosomes (clusters are called Nissl bodies or
chromatophilic substances – create gray matter)
• Mitochondria
• Golgi apparatus
• Lack centrosomes – cannot reproduce
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Details of Neuron Structure
– Axon (nerve fiber) consists of:
• Axon hillock area
• Axoplasm
• Axon vesicles containing neurotransmitters
 Figure 13.9 Anatomy of a Representative Neuron
Nerve cell body

Mitochondrion
Golgi apparatus
Axon (may be Terminal
Axon hillock
myelinated) boutons
Dendrite Initial segment
of axon

Nucleus

Nerve cell body

Nucleolus Nucleolus
Nucleus Postsynaptic
Axon hillock cell
Initial segment
of axon
Chromatophilic
substance
Dendritic Chromatophilic Neurofilament
spines substance Neurofilament

Multipolar neuron Nerve cell body LM  1600

1. Synapses with another neuron

Synapses with
another neuron
Neuron
Neuron

Dendrites Axolemma

2. Neuromuscular synapses
Neuromuscular
Collateral synapses
branch

Terminal arborization

Terminal boutons Skeletal

muscle

3. Neuroglandular synapses
Neuroglandular
synapses

Gland
cells

A neuron may innervate (1) other neurons, (2) skeletal muscle

fibers, or (3) gland cells. Synapses are shown in boxes for each
example. A single neuron would not innervate all three.
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Neuron Classification
– Can be classified based on structure or function
– Structural classification
• Based on the placement of the cell body
• Based on the number of processes extending from
the cell body
– Functional classification
• Sensory
• Motor
• Interneuron (involved with both sensory and motor)
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Structural Classification of Neurons
– Anaxonic
• Has many processes but cannot differentiate
between axons and dendrites
– Bipolar
• The cell body is between two axons
– Pseudounipolar
• The cell body is off to one side of the axon
– Multipolar
• Typically has a single axon and multiple dendrites
 Figure 13.10 A Structural Classification of Neurons

Anaxonic neuron Bipolar neuron Pseudounipolar neuron Multipolar neuron

Dendrites Dendrites

Initial
segment
Dendrites
Axon

Dendrite

Axon
Axon

Terminal Axon
boutons

Terminal Terminal
boutons boutons

Anaxonic neurons Bipolar neurons Pseudounipolar Multipolar neurons

have more than two have two processes neurons have a single have more than two
processes, but separated by the elongate process with processes; there is a
axons cannot be cell body. the cell body situated single axon and
distinguished from to one side. multiple dendrites.
dendrites.
Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue
• Functional Classification of Neurons
– Sensory
• Sends information from the PNS to the CNS
• Somatic sensory and visceral sensory
– Motor
• Sends information from the CNS to the periphery
– Interneurons
• Situated between the motor and sensory neurons
• Analyze sensory input and coordinate motor
outputs
• Can be excitatory or inhibitory
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue

• Functional Classification of Neurons (cont.)

– Sensory neurons
• Pick up information from receptors and send it to
the CNS
– Motor neurons
• Send information to the effectors of the periphery
or organs
 Figure 13.2 A Functional Overview of the Nervous System
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(brain and spinal cord)
Information
processing

Sensory Motor
information commands
within within
afferent efferent
division PERIPHERAL division
NERVOUS Includes
SYSTEM

Somatic nervous Autonomic

system nervous system

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
division division

Special sensory Somatic sensory

receptors (provide receptors (monitor
sensations of smell, skeletal muscles, joints,
taste, vision, skin surface; provide
balance, and position sense and
hearing) touch, pressure, pain, Skeletal
muscle • Smooth
and temperature muscle
sensations) • Cardiac
muscle
Visceral sensory receptors (monitor • Glands
internal organs, including those
of cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive systems)

RECEPTORS EFFECTORS
 Cellular Organization in Neural Tissue

• There are three major types of receptors

– Exteroceptors
• Provide information about the external
environment such as:
– Touch, temperature, pressure, sight, smell, and hearing
– Proprioceptors
• Monitor position and movement of the body
– Interoceptors
• Monitor internal organ activity
 Figure 13.11 A Functional Classification of Neurons

RECEPTORS PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Interoceptors
Sensory neurons
Afferent fibers in peripheral
Exteroceptors ganglia
Proprioceptors
Interneurons
EFFECTORS Somatic
Efferent fibers
Skeletal muscles motor
neurons
Skeletal
muscle
fibers

Visceral effectors

Smooth
muscles Visceral Visceral
motor neurons motor
Glands neurons
in peripheral
Postganglionic motor ganglia Preganglionic in CNS
Cardiac
fibers fibers
muscle
 Somatic (sensory & motor)
Adipose
tissue
 Visceral (sensory & motor)
 Neural Regeneration
• Neural Regeneration
– Steps involved in the limited ability to repair
• Schwann cells grow into the cut area
• Axons begin to grow into the Schwann cells
 The Nerve Impulse
• A nerve impulse is the action potential of a nerve
• The action potential is due to the exchange of ions
across the membrane
• The ability to conduct the impulse is known as
excitability
• A stimulus is anything that causes an action potential to
occur
• The stimulus has to overcome the threshold level of that
particular neuron
• The threshold level is the amount of stimuli required to
create the action potential
 The Nerve Impulse

• The “speed” of the impulse depends on:

– Presence of a myelin sheath
• Fast impulse
– Lack of a myelin sheath
• Slow impulse
– Axon with a large diameter
• Fast impulse
• Up to 140 m/sec
– Axon with a small diameter
• Slow impulse
• Less than 1 m/sec
 Synaptic Communication

• A synapse is the junction between:

– The axon of one neuron and the dendrite of
another neuron (axodendritic)
– The axon of one neuron and the soma of
another neuron (axosomic)
– The axon of one neuron and the axon of
another neuron (axoaxonic)
– The axon of a neuron and a muscle
(neuromuscular)
– The axon of a neuron and a gland
(neuroglandular)
Figure 13.9b Anatomy of a Representative Neuron
1. Synapses with another neuron
Synapses with
another neuron
Neuron
Neuron

Dendrites Axolemma

2. Neuromuscular synapses
Neuromuscular
Collateral synapses
branch

Terminal arborization

Terminal boutons Skeletal

muscle
3. Neuroglandular synapses
Neuroglandular
synapses

Gland
cells

A neuron may innervate (1) other neurons, (2) skeletal muscle

fibers, or (3) gland cells. Synapses are shown in boxes for each
example. A single neuron would not innervate all three.
 Synaptic Communication

• At a synaptic terminal, a nerve impulse

triggers events at a synapse that transfers
information across the synapse
• This transfer process is accomplished by:
– Vesicular synapses (chemical synapses)
• Involve a neurotransmitter
– Nonvesicular synapses
• Involve the flow of ions
Figure 13.13a The Structure of a Synapse

Dendrites

Axon

Myelin

Terminal arborization
Synapse Terminal boutons

Postsynaptic neurons

Impulse
conduction Terminal
arborization

Endoplasmic Terminal bouton

reticulum Mitochondrion

Synaptic vesicles

Presynaptic membrane

Synaptic cleft

Postsynaptic membrane

Diagrammatic view of a vesicular synapse between two neurons

 Synaptic Communication
• Vesicular synapse events
– Impulses are conveyed in one direction only
– Sequence of events:
• An action potential arrives at the presynaptic
membrane
• This triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from
the axon vesicles
• The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse
• The neurotransmitter binds to the postsynaptic
membrane
• This binding action causes a change in the
permeability of the postsynaptic membrane
• This change in permeability results in an action
potential of the next neuron
 Synaptic Communication
• Nonvesicular synapse events
– Impulses can be conveyed in any direction
– Sequence of events:
• The presynaptic membrane of one neuron is tightly
bound to the postsynaptic membrane of another
neuron
• This binding permits the passage of ions from one
neuron to the next
 Neuron Organization and Processing

• Neurons can be organized into smaller

organized groups called neuronal pools
• The neuronal pools are identified by their
neural circuitry such as:
– Divergence
– Convergence
– Serial processing
– Parallel processing
– Reverberation
 Neuron Organization and Processing
• Divergence
– The spread of information from one
neuron to several neurons
– Permits broad distribution of a specific
input
– Information enters the CNS and then
spreads to the brain and spinal cord at the
same time
• Convergence
– Information going from several neurons to
a single neuron
– Movements of the diaphragm muscle are
involuntary, but yet at times we can move
 Neuron Organization and Processing
• Serial processing
– Information going from one neuron to the next
in a sequence
– Information going to one part of the brain then,
to another part, and then to another part, etc.
• Parallel processing
– Several neurons are processing the information
at the same time
– If you step on a nail, you typically move your
foot, shout “ouch,” and dance a bit, all at the
same time
 Neuron Organization and Processing
• Reverberation
– Collateral axons extend back toward the
origin of the impulse to cause an
enhancement or a continuation of the
impulse
 Figure 13.14 Organization of Neuronal Circuits

Divergence Convergence Serial processing Parallel processing Reverberation

Divergence, a mechanism Convergence, a Serial processing, Parallel processing, in Reverberation, a

for spreading stimulation mechanism providing in which neurons which individual neurons feedback
to multiple neurons or input to a single or pools work in a or neuronal pools mechanism that
neuronal pools in the CNS neuron from multiple sequential manner process information may be excitatory or
sources simultaneously inhibitory
Anatomical Organization of the Nervous System
• The organization of the neurons in the
CNS and PNS is not random
– Organization in the CNS
• A collection of cell bodies in one area creates gray
matter
• Bundles of axons in an area create white matter;
these are called tracts and columns
– Organization in the PNS
• The cell bodies are found in ganglia
• Axons are bundled together to form spinal nerves
and cranial nerves
 Figure 13.15 Anatomical Organization of the Nervous System

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

GRAY MATTER ORGANIZATION

Neural Cortex Centers

Gray matter on the Collections of
surface of the brain neuron cell bodies
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM in the CNS; each
center has specific
GRAY MATTER
processing functions
Nuclei
Ganglia Collections of
Collections of
Higher Centers
neuron cell bodies
neuron cell bodies in the interior of The most complex
in the PNS the CNS centers in the brain

WHITE MATTER
WHITE MATTER ORGANIZATION
Nerves
Bundles of axons Tracts Columns
in the PNS Bundles of CNS Several tracts that
axons that share a form an anatomically
common origin and distinct mass
destination

RECEPTORS

PATHWAYS
Centers and tracts that connect
the brain with other organs and
EFFECTORS systems in the body

Ascending (sensory) pathway

Descending (motor) pathway