Wolaita Sodo University

(informatics)

Digital Logic Design

CHAPTER -1
Digital Concepts
 Digital Concepts

1.1 introduction
 In science, technology, business, and, in fact, most other fields of
endeavor, we are constantly dealing with quantities.
 Quantities are measured, monitored, recorded, manipulated
arithmetically, observed, or in some other way utilized in most
physical systems.
 It is important when dealing with various quantities that we be able
to represent their values efficiently and accurately.
 There are basically two ways of representing the numerical value of
quantities:
Analog
Digital.
 Digital Concepts
1.1.1 Analog representation
In analog representation a quantity is represented by a voltage, current, or meter
movement that is proportional to the value of that quantity.
The example are: the automobile speedometer, the common mercury
thermometer, audio microphone …..etc.
Analog quantities such as those cited above have an important characteristic: they
can vary over a continuous range of values.

Figure 1-1 Graph

of an analog quantity
(temperature versus
time).
 Digital Concepts
1.1.1 Digital representation
In digital representation the quantities represented not by
proportional quantities but by symbols called digits.
As an example, consider the digital watch, as we know, the time of
day changes continuously, but the digital watch reading does not
change continuously; rather, it changes in steps of one per minute (or
per second).
In other words, this digital representation of the time of day changes
in discrete steps, as compared with the representation of time provided
by an analog watch, where the dial reading changes continuously.
In general, the major difference between analog and digital quantities,
then, can be simply stated as follows:
Analog = Continuous
Digital = Discrete
 Continued..

If we take the temp. each hour, we are sampling the above graph

Figure 1.2

Sampled-value representation (quantization) of the analog quantity in Figure

1-1.
Each value represented by a dot can be digitized by representing it as a digital
code that consists of a series of 1s and 0s.
 Advantages of Digital Techniques

 Digital systems are generally easier to design: This is because the

circuits that are used are switching circuits.
 Information storage is easy: This is accomplished by special devices
and circuits that can latch onto digital information and hold it for as long as
necessary.
 Accuracy and precision are greater: Digital data can be stored more
compactly/easily and reproduced with greater accuracy and clarity.
 Operation can be easily programmed: It is fairly easy to design a
digital systems whose operation is controlled by a set of stored instruction
called program.
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise: Since the exact value of
voltage is not important in digital systems.
 More digital circuits can be fabricated on IC chips: Due to its
relative Complexity and economical problem, analog s/m can’t achieve the
same degree of integration.
 Continued..

 The Only major drawback when using digital techniques is:- the
real world is mainly analog.
 Most physical quantities are analog in nature, and they need to be
monitored, operated on, and controlled by the system.
 E.g. Temperature, Pressure, velocity, liquid levels, flow rate …etc.
 We are in the habit of expressing these quantities digitally, such as
when we say that the temperature is 64°.
To take advantage of digital techniques when dealing with analog
inputs and outputs, three steps must be followed:
Convert the real-world analog inputs to digital form(by using
ADC).
Process (operate on) the digital information.
Convert the digital outputs back to real-world analog form (by
using DAC).
 Continued..
 As example, consider Recording of audio Using Compact disks(CDs), as
shown below:
First, sound from instruments and human voices produces an analog voltage
signal in the micro phone
Then, this analog signal is converted to digital using ADC.
The digital information is stored on the CD’s surface. Then the process shown
on the fig. below takes place during play back.
 Binary Digits

 Each of the two digits in the binary system, 1 and 0, is called a bit,
which is a contraction of the words binary digit.
In digital circuits, two different voltage levels are used to represent
the two bits.
Generally, 1 is represented by the higher voltage, which we will
refer to as a HIGH, and a 0 is represented by the lower voltage
level, which we will refer to as a LOW.
HIGH = 1 and LOW = 0
Groups of bits (combinations of 1’s and 0’s), called codes, are
used to represent numbers, letters, symbols, instructions, and
anything else required in a given application.
 Logic Level
 The voltages used to represent a 1 and a 0 are called logic levels.
 Ideally, one voltage level represents a HIGH and another voltage level
represents a LOW.
 In a practical digital circuit, however, HIGH can be any voltage between a
specified minimum value and a specified maximum value.
 Likewise, a LOW can be any voltage between a specified minimum and a
specified maximum.
 Figure below illustrates the general
range of LOWs and HIGHs for a
digital circuit.
 The variable VH(max) represents the
maximum HIGH voltage value, and
VH(min) represents the minimum
HIGH voltage value.
 Cont…

 The maximum LOW voltage value is represented by VL(max),

and the minimum LOW voltage value is represented by VL(min)’ .
The voltage values between VL(max) and VH(min) are
unacceptable for proper operation.
For example, the HIGH values for a certain type of digital circuit
called CMOS may range from 2 V to 3.3V and the LOW values
may range from 0V to 0.8V.
So, for example, if a voltage of 2.5 V is applied, the circuit will
accept it as a HIGH or binary 1.
If a voltage of 0.5V is applied, the circuit will accept it as a LOW
or binary 0.
 For this type of circuit, voltages between 0.8 V and 2 V are
unacceptable.
 NUMBER SYSTEM and OPERATION
2.1. Decimal Numbers
 The decimal system is Composed of 10 numerals or symbols.
These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2,3,…9; using these symbols as digits of a
number, we can express any quantity.
The decimal system, also called the base-10 system because it
has 10 digits.
The position of each digit in a decimal number indicates the magnitude of the
quantity represented and can be assigned a weight.
The weights for whole numbers are positive powers of ten that increase from
right to left, beginning with 10° = 1.
For fractional numbers, the weights are negative powers of ten that decrease
from left to right beginning with 10-1.
 Cont….
The value of a decimal number is the sum of the digits after each
digit has been multiplied by its weight.
 Example:-

 Example 2:- Express the decimal number 568.23 as a sum of the values of
each digit.
 2.2. Binary Numbers
The binary number system has two digits (bits). The two binary digits (bits) are 1
and 0.
The position of a 1 or 0 in a binary number indicates its weight.
The weights in a binary number are based on powers of two.
The right-most bit is the LSB (least significant bit) in a binary whole number and has
a weight of 2° = 1.
The weights increase from right to left by a power of two for each bit.
The left-most bit is the MSB (most significant bit).
The left-most bit is the MSB in a binary fractional number and has a weight of 2-1=
0.5.
The fractional weights decrease from left to right by a negative power of two for each
bit.
Generally, the weight structure of a binary number is
 where n is the
number of bits from
the binary point.
 Binary to Decimal Conversion
The decimal value of any binary number can be found by adding the weights
of all bits that are 1 and discarding the weights of all bits that are 0.
Example:-Convert the binary whole number 1101101 to decimal

 Example:- Convert the fractional binary number 0.1011 to

decimal.

Exercise:-
 Decimal to Binary Conversion

a. Sum-of-Weights Method
 One way to find the binary number that is equivalent to a given decimal
number is to determine the set of binary weights whose sum is equal to the
decimal number.
 Example:- Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:

b. Repeated Division-by-2 Method

To get the binary number for a given decimal number, divide the decimal
number by 2 until the quotient is 0. Remainders form the binary number.
The first remainder to be produced is the LSB in the binary number, and the
last remainder to be produced is the MSB.
Example:- Convert the following decimal numbers
 Decimal Fraction to Binary Conversion
Sum-of-Weights:-The sum-of-weights method can be applied to fractional
decimal numbers, as shown in the following example:

Repeated Multiplication by 2 :-Decimal fractions can be converted to binary

by repeated multiplication by 2.
Multiplying each resulting fractional part of the product by 2 until the
fractional product is zero or until the desired number of decimal places is
reached.
The carry digits, or carries, generated by the multiplications produce the
binary number.
The first carry produced is the MSB, and the last carry is the LSB.
Example:-Convert each decimal number to binary by using the repeated
multiplication-by-2 for fractions.
a) 0.625 b) 0.375
Binary Arithmetic

 Division in binary follows the same procedure as

division in decimal. as Example blew illustrates. The
equivalent decimal divisions are also given.

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 1’s and 2’s complement of Binary number

 The 1's complement and the 2's complement of a binary number are important
because they permit the representation of negative numbers.
 The method of 2's complement arithmetic is commonly used in computers to
handle negative numbers.
A. FINDING THE 1'S COMPLEMENT
 The l's complement of a binary number is found by changing all 1s to 0s and
all 0s to 1s.

B. FINDING THE 2' S COMPLEMENT

 The 2's complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to the LSB of
the l's complement.

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 Signed Numbers
Digital systems, such as the computer, must be able to handle both
positive and negative numbers.
A signed binary number consists of both sign and magnitude
information.
The sign indicates whether a number is positive or negative, and the
magnitude is the value of the number.
There are three forms in which signed integer (whole) numbers can be
represented in binary:
 Sign-magnitude,
 l's complement, and
 2' complement.
Of these, the 2's complement is the most important and the sign-
magnitude is the least used.
The Sign Bit:- the left-most bit in a signed binary number is the sign
bit, which tells you whether the number is positive or negative.
A 0 sign bit indicates a +ve number, and a 1 sign bit indicates a –ve 20
 Cont….
a. Sign-Magnitude Form
When a signed binary number is represented in sign-magnitude, the left-most bit is
the sign bit and the remaining bits are the magnitude bits.
The magnitude bits are in true (un complemented) binary for both positive and
negative numbers.
For example, the decimal number + 25 is expressed as an 8-bit signed binary
number using the sign-magnitude form as

Notice that the only difference between + 25 and - 25 is the sign bit.
b. 1' s Complement Form
Positive numbers in 1’s complement form are represented the same way as the
positive sign-magnitude numbers.
Negative numbers, however, are the 1's complements of the corresponding positive
numbers.
For example:- using eight bits, the decimal number -25 is expressed as the 1's
complement of +25 (0001100 I ) as 11100110 21
 Cont….
c. 2 ' s Complement Form
 Positive numbers in 2's complement form are represented the same way as in the
sign-magnitude and l's complement forms.
 Negative numbers are the 2's complements of the corresponding positive numbers.
 Again, using eight bits, let's take decimal number -25 and express it as the 2's
complement of +25 (00011001). 111O0111
 In the 2's complement form, a negative number is the 2's complement of the
corresponding positive number.

:-Express the decimal number -39 as an 8-bit number in the

a) sign-magnitude
b) I's complement, and
c) 2's complement forms.
The Decimal Value of Signed Numbers
 Example:- Determine the decimal value of this signed binary number expressed in :
a) sign-magnitude b) 1's complement, and c) 2's complement forms.
i) 10010101 ii) 00010I11 iii) 11101000 22
 ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS WITH SIGNED NUMBERS
 The most commonly used system for representing signed binary numbers is the 2’s-
complement system.
 Because the 2's complement form for representing signed numbers is the most
widely used in computers and microprocessor-based systems, the coverage in this
section is limited to 2's complement arithmetic.
A. ADDITION
 There are four cases that can occur when two signed binary numbers are added.
 Case I: Two Positive Numbers. The addition of two positive numbers is straight
forward. Consider the addition of +9 and +4:
 Note:- Addition of two positive
numbers yields a positive
number.

 Case II: Positive Number and Smaller Negative Number. Consider the addition of
+9 and -4. Remember that the —4 will be in its 2’s-complement form. Thus, +4
(00100) must be converted to -4 (11100).
 Note:- The final carry bit is discarded. The
sum is positive and therefore in true (un-
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complemented) binary.
Cont.…
 Case III: Positive Number and Larger Negative Number. Consider the addition of
-9 and +4:
 Note:- The sum is negative and therefore in
2's complement form.
 Case IV: Two Negative Numbers:- Consider the addition of -5 and -9:
 Note:- The final carry bit is discarded.
The sum is negative and therefore in
2's complement form.
 In a computer, the negative numbers are stored in 2's complement form so. as you
can see, the addition process is very simple: Add the two numbers and discard any
final carry bit.
 Overflow Condition:- When two numbers are added and the number of bits required
to represent the sum exceeds the number of bits in the two numbers, an overflow
results.
 An overflow can occur only when both
numbers are positive or both numbers are
negative.
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Cont.…

B) SUBTRACTION
 Subtraction is a special case of addition.
 For example, subtracting +6 from +9 is equivalent to adding -6 to +9.
 Basically, the subtraction operation changes the sign of the subtrahend and adds it
to the minuend.
 The result of a subtraction is called the difference.
 NOTE:-The sign of a positive or negative binary number is changed by taking its 2's
complement.
 To subtract two signed numbers, take the 2's complement of the subtrahend and
add. Discard any final carry bit.

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HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS
 The hexadecimal number system has a base of sixteen; that is, it is composed of 16
numeric and alphabetic characters.
 The hexadecimal number system consists of digits 0,1,2…9 and letters A,B,C,D,E & F
Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
 Simply break the binary number into 4-bit groups, starting at the LSB and replace
each 4-bit group with the equivalent hexadecimal symbol.

Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
 To convert from a hexadecimal number to a binary number, reverse the process and
replace each hexadecimal symbol with the appropriate four bits.
 Hexadecimal is a convenient way to represent binary numbers. 26
Cont.…

Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion
 One way to find the decimal equivalent of a hexadecimal number is to first convert
the hexadecimal number to binary and then convert from binary to decimal.
 Exapmle:- Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal:

 Another is to multiply the decimal value of each hexadecimal digit by its weight and
then take the sum of these products.
 Example:-Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal:

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Hexadecimal Addition
 Addition can be done directly with hexadecimal numbers as the following example
 Example:- Add the following hexadecimal numbers:

Hexadecimal Subtraction
 Convert the hexadecimal number to binary. Take the 2's complement of the binary
number. Convert the result to hexadecimal.
 Example:- Subtract the following hexadecimal numbers:

Digital logic design by Nigatu A 28

OCTAL NUMBERS
 The octal number system is composed of eight digits, which are 0, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
 The octal number system has a base of 8.
Octal-to-Decimal Conversion
 The evaluation of an octal number in terms of its decimal equivalent is accomplished
by multiplying each digit by its weight and summing the products.
Octal-to-Binary Conversion
 Because each octal digit can be represented by a 3-bit binary number, it is very easy
to convert from octal to binary.

 To convert an octal number to a binary number, simply replace each octal digit with
the appropriate three bits.
 Example:-Convert each of the following octal numbers to binary:

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Binary-to-Octal Conversion
 Conversion of a binary number to an octal number is the reverse of the octaJ-to-
binary conversion.
 Start with the right-most group of three bits and, moving from right to left, convel1
each 3-bit group to the equivalent octal digit.
 Example:-Convert each of the following binary numbers to octal:

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BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD)
 Binary coded decimal means that each decimal digit, 0 through 9, is represented by
a binary code of four bits.
 The 8421 code is a type of BCD (binary coded decimal) code.
 The designation 8421 indicates the binary weights uf the four bits (2 3 , 22 , 21 ,20 )

 Invalid Codes:-The six code combinations that are not used-1010, 1011, 1100, 1101,
1110, and 1111-are invalid in the 842] BCD code..
 To express any decimal number in BCD, simply replace each decimal digit with the
appropriate 4-bit code, as shown by Example:
 Example:-Convert each of the following decimal numbers to BCD:

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Cont.…
 It is equally easy to determine a decimal number from a BCD number.
 Start at the right most bit and break the code into groups of four bits.
 Then write the decimal digit represented by each 4-bit group.
 Example:-Convert each of the following BCD codes to decimal:

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DIGITAL CODES
 Many specialized codes are used in digital systems.
 You have just learned about the BCD code; now let's look at a few others.
 Some codes are strictly numeric, like BCD, and others are alphanumeric; that is, they
are used to represent numbers, letters, symbols, and instructions.
 The codes introduced in this section are the Gray code and the ASCII code.
The Gray Code
 The Gray code is unweighted and is not an arithmetic code; that is, there are no
specific weights assigned to the bit positions.
 The important feature of the Gray code is that it exhibits only a single bit change
from one code word to the next in sequence.
 This property is important in many applications, such as shaft position encoders,
where error susceptibility increases with the number of bit changes between
adjacent numbers in a sequence.
 Like binary numbers. the Gray code can have any number of bits. Notice the single-
bit change between successive Gray code words.

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Cont.…
 The following table is listing of the 4-bit Gray code for decimal numbers 0,1,2,…15.

Binary-to-Gray Code Conversion

 The following rules explain how to convert from a binary number to a Gray code
word:
1. The most significant bit (left-most) in the Gray code is the same as the
corresponding MSB in the binary number.
2. Going from left to right, add each adjacent pair of binary code bits to get the 34
next Gray code bit. Discard carries.
Cont.…
 Gray-to-Binary Conversion To convert from Gray code to binary, use a similar
method; however, there are some differences.
 The following rules apply:
1. The most significant bit (left-most) in the binary code is the same as the corresponding
bit in the Gray code.
2. Add each binary code bit generated to the Gray code bit in the next adjacent sposition.
Discard carries.

Digital logic design by Nigatu A

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Alphanumeric Codes
 Alphanumeric codes are codes that represent numbers and alphabetic characters
(letters).
 Most such codes, however, also represent other characters such as symbols and
various instructions necessary for conveying information that are found on a
computer keyboard.
 The ASCII is the most common alphanumeric code and is covered next.
 ASCII:-is the abbreviation for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
 ASCII is a universally accepted alphanumeric code used in most computers and
other electronic equipment.
 Most computer keyboards are standardized with the ASCII.
 When you enter a letter. a number, or control command, the corresponding ASCII
code goes into the computer.
 ASCII has 128 characters and symbols represented by a 7-bit binary code.
 Actually, ASCII can be considered an 8-bit code with the MSB always O. This 8-bit
code is 00 through 7F in hexadecimal.
 The following table is a listing of partial ASCII code showing the decimal,
hexadecimal, and binary representations for each character and symbol.
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1. INTRODUCTION

Digital logic design by Nigatu A 37

Cont.…
 Example:-The following is a message encoded in ASCII code. What ¡s the message?
1001000 1000101 1001100 1010000
 Solution: Convert each seven-bit code to its hex equivalent.
The results are 48 45 4C 50
 Now locate these hex values in Table above and determine the character
represented by each. The results are HELP

 Example2: write your full name using ASCII Code.

 Example3:

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Exercise

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