INTRODUCTION TO FIXED

AND ROTARY WING

AIRCRAFT

BY
OMANE A.A (CPL)
Email: Mc.fammes@gmail.com
IG:goodboykojo
 OBJECTIVES

• The expected learning outcome is that the student is able to

classify fixed-wing aircraft according to their
• type of propulsion
• operational speed range
• take-off/landing performance
• purpose
• list the components of a typical fixed-wing aircraft
 OBJECTIVES

• State the various types of fuselage, wing, empennage and landing

gear arrangement
• Comprehend the requirements for the fuselage layout of fixed-
wing aircraft in general and military combat aircraft in particular
• Explain the various types of rotary-wing configuration
• List the main structural components of helicopters and their
design features
 OBJECTIVES

• State the working principles of fully articulated, semi-

rigid and rigid rotor systems
• Describe the principle of the main rotor transmission
system
• Explain the common types of anti-torque systems and
their principles of operation
• State the purpose of rotor flight controls and their
working principles
 TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

• Any aircraft designed for flight in the atmosphere and fitted with
fixed
lifting surfaces may be defined as a ’fixed-wing aircraft’.

• Such aircraft may be designed to fly with or without means of

power.
 TECHNICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

• Fixed-wing aircraft may be technically classified as

belonging to one of the following 2 main categories:

• powered aircraft (called: ’aeroplanes’)

• aircraft without means of power (gliders, sailplanes

etc.).
Classification of Aeroplanes
 Classification of Aeroplanes

• Aeroplanes may be further classified according to the surfaces from

which they are designed to be operated, into:

• landplanes

• seaplanes/flying boats

• amphibians (combination of land- and seaplane).

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
THE TYPE OF PROPULSION
 Landplanes, seaplanes/flying boats and amphibians may be
further classified into:

 piston-engined aircraft
 turbine-engined aircraft.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE
OPERATING SPEED RANGE
• Powered fixed-wing aircraft may be classified according to the speed
range for which they are designed to operate into:

 subsonic: speeds up to Mach 0.75

 transonic: speeds from Mach 0.8 to Mach 1.2
 supersonic: speeds up to and beyond Mach 2
 hypersonic: speeds exceeding Mach 5.

The term ’sonic’ refers to the speed of sound, which is expressed as a

’Mach number’. ’Mach 1’ is equal to the speed of sound
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE
OPERATING SPEED RANGE

• Most of the present supersonic aircraft are military aircraft,

with prohibitive costs of manufacturing/maintenance and
operation.

• Hypersonic aircraft were used experimentally to obtain data

on high-speed flight.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE
TAKE-OFF/LANDING PERFORMANCE

All types of fixed-wing aircraft may be broadly classified

according to their take-off and landing performance as follows:
designed for conventional take-off and landing (CTOL)
designed for short take-off and landing (STOL)
designed for vertical short take-off and landing (V/STOL)
designed for purely vertical take-off and landing (VTOL)
CLASSIFICATION OF FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
ACCORDING TO THEIR SPEED RANGE AND
TAKE-OFF/LANDING CHARACTERISTICS
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIXED-
WING AIRCRAFT ACCORDING
TO THEIR PURPOSE
• The technical classification of aircraft is interesting and instructive,
but serves no useful purpose. E.g. a technical classification does not
establish restrictions or guide-lines for the design, manufacture,
maintenance and operation of aircraft.

• From the ’airworthiness’-point of view aircraft are classified

according to the purpose for which they are designed.
• Limits of operation and maintenance standards are affected
according to their weight category
CLASSIFICATION OF CIVIL AIRCRAFT
ACCORDING TO THE FAA

• The FAA classifies the various types of civil aircraft

primarily according to their weight and purpose because
these 2 factors significantly influence the design,
manufacture and operation of an aircraft.

• The FAA system of aircraft classification distinguishes

between 5 different categories as follows:
 ’NORMAL’ CATEGORY
• Such aircraft have a maximum take-off weight of up to 5.7 tons
(t).
• They are designed for passenger and/or cargo transport in
scheduled/non-scheduled services.
• Normal-category aircraft are operated by private
persons/organizations or third level air carriers.
• Typical examples are the CESSNA CONQUEST, the
DORNIER 228 or the DE HAVILLAND
’TWIN OTTER’
 ’UTILITY’ CATEGORY

• Such aircraft are also allowed to have a maximum take-

off weight of up to 5.7 t and may also carry passengers
and/or cargo.
• The structural strength is greater than of the aircraft of
the normal category to provide
for better maneuverability.
• Many of the single-engined CESSNA and
BEECHCRAFT aircraft belong to this category.
 ’AEROBATIC’ CATEGORY

• Weight is not a primary restriction for such aircraft.

• These aircraft are mainly used for the training of pilots
for competition/stunt flying.
• High levels of maneuverability and structural loads are
possible with such aircraft.
• Typical examples are the CESSNA AEROBAT or the
PITTS SPECIAL, K8
 ’RESTRICTED’ CATEGORY

• Aircraft of this category are not bound by design to be within

certain weight limits.
• The use of these aircraft is legally restricted to special activities
like crop-spraying or aerial photography.
• Any agricultural, vintage-type or home-built aircraft would
belong to the ’restricted’
category.
 ’TRANSPORT’ CATEGORY

• Such aircraft are designed for the transport of passengers and/or cargo
in scheduled services. The maximum take-off weight exceeds 5.7 t.
• Such aircraft must fulfill stringent requirements regarding operating
weights, weight and balance, controllability and safety.
• Examples of such aircraft are the AIRBUS series (A300, A310,
A319/320/321,A330, A340,C130), the BOEING series (727, 737, 747
’JUMBO JET’, 757
and 767) and the MC DONNEL--DOUGLAS DC 8, DC 9, DC 10 and
MD-80, MD-90, MD-11 series.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A FIXED-
WING AIRCRAFT
 AILERONS
OUTBOARD RUDDER
FLAPS

ROLL INBOARD
SPOILERS FLAPS ELEVATOR

INBOARD
FLAPS
OUTBOARD
FLAPS

AILERONS
ROLL
SPOILERS
 FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS
A typical fixed-wing aircraft is made up of the following components:
 the fuselage with front, centre and rear sections
 the wings, usually consisting of a centre section and 2 outer sections
 the engine nacelles, one for each engine
 the empennage with vertical and horizontal tail surfaces
 the landing gear, consisting of the 2 main and one nose (or tail) gear
unit(s)
 control surfaces attached to the wing and the empennage.
The fuselage contains enclosed compartments for carrying the crew
passengers and payload.
 FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS
• The wings provide the lift required for sustained flight. ln some
types of aircraft the wings are also used to carry fuel.
• The engine nacelles accommodate the engines and components
of the engine sub-systems.
• The empennage consists of stabilizing and some control
surfaces.
• The landing gear supports the aircraft on the ground and
enables ground operations such as taxiing, towing etc.
• The control surfaces mounted to the wing consist of the
ailerons, elevator, rudder and the flaps. The ailerons are
required for lateral control, the flaps during the take-off and
landing phases to increase the wing lift.
ARRANGEMENTS OF FIXED-WING
AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS

• The term ’arrangement’ as used in the following refers to

the general layout of a component itself and its location
relative to other components.
ARRANGEMENTS OF FUSELAGE
 CONVENTIONAL
• The conventional type of fuselage consists of a long, single cell
which carries the crew, passengers and/or cargo.
• The empennage is attached to the rear fuselage section.
• The conventional fuselage usually has a crew entry door on the
left side of the front section and a passenger/cargo door located
towards the rear of the centre section.
• This means that only the front and centre sections of the
fuselage are carrying useful loads.
• The rear section is used as a structural platform
for mounting the tail (i.e. the empennage).
 FUSELAGE WITH TAIL BOOMS
• The boom-type fuselage consists of a short cell which carries
the crew and passengers/cargo.
• There is no rearward extension for mounting the tail.
• In this case, the empennage is mounted to twin booms attached
to the wings.
• These booms may sometimes be extensions of the engine
nacelles.
ARRANGEMENTS OF WING
 ARRANGEMENTS OF WING
• The biplane arrangement makes use of a pair of wings mounted
one above the other. This arrangement may still be found on
vintage/restricted-category aircraft.
• The monoplane arrangement uses a single wing which may be
directly or indirectly attached to the fuselage.
• The tandem arrangement uses 2 wings, one behind the other. This
arrangement is not yet officially certificated by any airworthiness
authority. Tandem wings are still in the experimental stage.
WING ATTACH POINTS AND WING
DIHEDRALS.
EMPENNAGE ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
 EMPENNAGE ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
• Conventional empennages have their horizontal tail surfaces at
the
base of the vertical surfaces. Sometimes 2 or more vertical tail
surfaces are used.

• On T-tails, the horizontal tail surface is mounted on top of the

vertical tail (stabilizer). This is done to protect the tail from jet
blast or for aerodynamic reasons.
 EMPENNAGE ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
• V-tails have combined vertical/horizontal stabilizing and control
surfaces, which eliminate the need for a separate vertical tail
surface.
There are 2 versions of the V-Tail, the upright V and the inverted
V. Both versions are used on light aircraft to reduce structural
weight.
•
The canard-type tail is a modified conventional tail. The
horizontal stabilizing surfaces are fitted to the front end of the
fuselage. The canard layout has definite advantages in terms of
lower structural weight and aerodynamic gains. lt is not used on
large aircraft.
LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENTS OF
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
• The arrangement of the landing gear is closely related to the
fuselage length, weight and take-off/landing performance
characteristics of the aircraft.
• Landing gears are classified according to the location of the
auxiliary gear relative to the main gear
• The 3 main arrangements are:

 Tail gear
 Nose gear (tri-cycle gear)
 Tandem gear.
• The tail gear has 2 laterally separated main gear units and a
tail-mounted auxiliary gear. The centre of gravity of the aircraft
is behind
the straight line joining the axles of the 2 main gear units.

• The nose gear (or: tri-cycle gear) has 2 laterally separated main
gear units and a nose gear mounted to the front fuselage
section. The
centre of gravity of the aircraft is ahead of the straight line
passing through the 2 main gear axles.

• The tandem-type gear is fitted with 2 main gear units, but they
are longitudinally separated
 FUSELAGE LAYOUT OF FIXED-WING
AIRCRAFT
• Factors influencing the fuselage layout of a passenger-carrying
aircraft are:

 number of passengers to be carried

 cabin height
 type of operation (long or short haul)
 operating altitude
 national and international safety requirements affecting number and
location of emergency exits and life saving equipment
 fire protection
 reduction of noise levels in cockpit and cabin.
FUSELAGE LAYOUT OF FIXED-WING
AIRCRAFT

• Factors influencing the fuselage layout of a cargo-carrying aircraft

are:

 weight/volume relationship of the cargo to be carried

 mixed passenger/cargo or pure cargo operations
 loading requirements/convenience (front or rear loading provisions)
 fire protection requirements.
 LAYOUT REQUIREMENTS OF
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
• There may be slight differences in the layout because of
changes in seating density, number of persons carried, nature of
cargo
and special equipment for loading/unloading of cargo.

• Certain types of military cargo aircraft may have fuselage

layouts featuring wide main doors designed to be opened in
flight (e.g. for dropping para troopers or equipment)
 LAYOUT REQUIREMENTS OF
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
• Most military aircraft are designed to carry and employ various
weapons. According to their role typical combat aircraft may be of one
of the following types:

 Tactical fighter
 Fighter bomber
 Air superiority fighter
 Strike fighter
 Multirole combat aircraft
 Close air support aircraft
 (Armed) reconnaissance aircraft.
 LAYOUT REQUIREMENTS OF
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
Factors affecting the fuselage layouts of military combat aircraft in
general may be summarized as follows:
 High structural strength and rigidity considerations (because of the
required level of manoeuvrability)
 Special protection of crew compartments and fuel tanks
 Designed for mounting of engines at or in the fuselage or at/in
extensions of the fuselage
 Landing gear is generally fuselage-mounted
 Special design considerations affect the fuselage layouts of naval
combat aircraft because of the high loads on the fuselage occurring
during deck landings
 Special design considerations affect the fuselage layouts of VTOL
combat aircraft.
ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT
(HELICOPTERS)
TYPES OF ROTARY-WING CONFIGURATION
 CONVENTIONAL HELICOPTER
• A conventional helicopter has a main rotor and a tail rotor
which are both driven via a drive shaft by the engine.
• The tail rotor is used to oppose and balance the main rotor
torque and for directional control.
Tandem Rotors
Tandem rotors are positioned one behind the other.
• The rotors turn in opposite directions thereby counteracting
each other’s torque. They
are synchronized in order to prevent touching each other.
• The heading is controlled by moving the rotor heads in
opposite directions.
 COAXIAL-TYPE HELICOPTER
• The coaxial-type helicopter has 2 rotors, one above the other,
with the rotor blades rotating in opposite directions thereby
again counteracting each other’s torque.
• Directional control is obtained by increasing the pitch of one
rotor while decreasing the other’s pitch.
 INTERMESHING ROTOR BLADES

• Intermeshing rotor blades are attached to separate rotor drive

shafts which form a ’V’.
• The rotor blades are synchronized to prevent contact.
• The torque is balanced by the rotor blades’ turning in opposite
directions.
• Steering is controlled similarly to the coaxial-type helicopter by
increasing and decreasing the pitch of the rotor blades.
MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A
HELICOPTER
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A
HELICOPTER FUSELAGE
BODY STRUCTURE OF A HELICOPTER
(EXAMPLE)
CABIN FLOOR ASSEMBLY OF A HELICOPTER
(EXAMPLE)
Cabin Enclosure of a Helicopter (Example)
REAR SECTION OF A HELICOPTER
(EXAMPLE)
SEMI-MONOCOQUE TAIL BOOM
VERTICAL STABILIZER ASSEMBLY
MI MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
 PURPOSE OF LANDING GEAR
• The functions of a landing gear are to:

Support the helicopter in a stable attitude.

Support the helicopter during ground manoeuvres.
Absorb landing shocks.
Dampen vibration.
Provide a means of steering and braking in the case of wheeled
landing gear.
 TYPES OF LANDING GEAR
• Landing devices are airframe components and may be simple
or complex in construction, depending on the weight and the
category of aircraft.
• Basically there are 4 main types of landing gear according to
the surface from which the aircraft is designed to operate.
• These types are:
Skid-type landing gear
Wheel-type landing gear
Float/flotation-type landing gear
Ski-type landing gear.
 LANDING GEAR
• The types of landing gear most commonly found on modern
helicopters are the skid gear and the wheel gear.
• Both the skid gear and the wheel gear have advantages and
disadvantages.
• The skid gear is less complex and requires less maintenance
than the wheel gear.
• However, landings and ground operations are much easier to be
carried out with wheel gear than with skids.
• Furthermore, a helicopter with wheels is able to move on the
ground without needing to fly actually.
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
• The transmission is a gear reduction mechanism attached to the
powerplant which drives the main rotor.
• Power is distributed to the cooling fan, the hydraulic pump, the tail
rotor and the rotor tachometer.
• Example: An average powerplant may run in a range of 6,000 rpm
to 6,600 rpm while the rotor turns at 340 rpm.
 Transmission Systems
• There are 2 reasons for these speed reductions:
The engines which produce the greatest amount of power are those
with high speeds of rotation.
The rotor cannot operate at such high speeds of rotation because of
the tip speeds and the probable stall of the retreating blades.
MAIN ROTOR GEARBOX (EXAMPLE)
ROTOR HEAD
RIGID ROTOR HEAD (EXAMPLE)
PRINCIPLE OF A RIGID ROTOR HEAD
 RIGID ROTOR HEAD

• The rigid rotor head system makes use of a feathering axis only.
• For this reason the abilities of this system have been neglected
over the years due to the inability to correct the dissymmetry in
lift.
• Some helicopters having a rigid rotor head are certified to use
fibreglass blades.
• Such blades are designed to flex in order to give flapping
motion as well as the lead-lag properties to the blade rather
than to the hub.
SEMI-RIGID ROTOR HEAD (EXAMPLE)
PRINCIPLE OF A SEMI-RIGID ROTOR HEAD
 SEMI-RIGID ROTOR HEAD
• The semi-rigid rotor, like the rigid rotor, makes use of a
feathering axis for pitch change.
• In addition to this movement, the rotor is allowed to flap as a
unit.
• For this reason it is sometimes referred to as a ’seesaw rotor
system’.
• Some systems are designed which provide an additional
movement about the chordwise axis by use of a gimbal ring.
• The reason for this additional movement is to compensate for
the Coriolis effect.
PRINCIPLE OF A FULLY ARTICULATED
ROTOR HEAD
FULLY ARTICULATED ROTOR
HEAD
• The fully articulated rotor head system utilise the feathering
axis for the blade pitch, an individual flapping hinge for each
blade and a lead-lag hinge for each blade.
MAIN AND TAIL ROTORS
PURPOSE

• The main rotor produces the lift and thrust forces and helps in
controlling the helicopter in the longitudinal and lateral planes.
• The tail rotor serves as compensation for the torque reaction
produced by the main rotor and also for directional control and
stability of the helicopter.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROTOR BLADES
 Characteristics of Rotor Blades

• The primary aerofoil (the ’wing’) of the helicopter is the main

rotor with its blades. For this reason a helicopter is called
’rotary-wing aircraft’.
• THE SPAN of the blade is the distance from the root of the
blade to its tip measured along the centre-line
• ’CHORD OF THE BLADE’ an imaginary line drawn from the
leading edge to the trailing edge
CONVENTIONAL TAIL ROTOR
FENESTRON (’DUCTED FAN’ TAIL ROTOR)
NOTAR ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM
 NOTAR TAIL

• Notar is a helicopter system that avoids the use of a tail

rotor.
• The enclosed variable-pitch composite blade produces a
low pressure,high volume of ambient air to pressurize the
composite tailboom.
• The air is expelled through slots which run the length of the
tailboom.
TAIL ROTOR DRIVE AND COUPLING
SYSTEMS
TAIL ROTOR WITH GEARBOX
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
FLIGHT CONTROLS
FLIGHT CONTROLS
AXES OF FLIGHT CONTROL AND
CONTROL DEVICES
 AXES OF FLIGHT CONTROL AND
CONTROL DEVICES
• The use of flight controls of rotary-wing aircraft can be
explained as follows:
• Yawing movements are obtained by pushing the appropriate
pedal, to change the tail rotor thrust, as required.
• Rolling movements are obtained by moving the cyclic pitch
control to the left or right. This tilts the rotor disc to the right or
left, by changing the pitch of each rotor blade during one cycle
of rotation.
 AXES OF FLIGHT CONTROL AND
CONTROL DEVICES

• Pitching movements are obtained by moving the cyclic

pitch control fore or aft. For instance, as the cyclic stick is
moved forwards the angle of attack is decreased as the rotor
blades pass at the right side of the helicopter. The angle of
attack is increased as the blades pass at the left side.