CLASS 12 HISTORY BOOK 1

CH-1
BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

R E N A I S S A N C E 2 . 0 : N E W D AW N O F
LEARNING
B Y : S H I VA N G B H A R A D WA J
INTRODUCTION

• Ancient civilizations of the world have been a matter of curiosity for all. How the ancient
people lived, what clothes they used to wear, what food they ate and their weapons, and
ornaments are widely studied and researched.
• Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Greek civilizations are well-known and widely studied. India
too has an ancient civilization that flourished thousands of years ago and was discovered in
the 1920s by archaeologists who worked on it extensively to shed light on this important
part of India's rich cultural heritage.
• In this chapter, the beginnings of this great civilization, its salient features, its main cities
and its decline will be dealt with.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• The Indus valley civilization (2600 BCE - 1900 BCE) or the Harappan civilization/culture
was discovered during the 1920s.
• The first sites belonging to this civilization were discovered in the valley of the Indus and its
tributaries. Hence the name Indus valley civilization or Indus civilization. The first site that
was identified is Harappa.
• Harappan culture consists of three phases – early, mature and late Harappan.
• Early Harappan was a formative phase.
DISCOVERING THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

• In 1826, a British adventurer stood on the mounds of Harappa and was convinced that this
must be a place with historical importance.
• Another traveller who visited the site years later also thought that this was an important site.
But they were clueless about its significance.
• In the 1850s Harappa was visited by Alexander Cunningham and he conducted a small
excavation but soon left. Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa again, this time as the
director general of the archaeological survey of India and tried exploring the site.
• In 1920, Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa and in 1921, R.D.Banarji excavated Mohenjo-
Daro. Slowly the significance of the discoveries came to light.
• In 1924, John Marshal made the formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus or
Harappan civilization. The Indus valley civilization represented the urban centre.
BEGINNING & FEATURES

• Cultures are associated with distinctive pottery, artefacts, agriculture and trade, and crafts.
The period between early Harappan civilization and mature Harappan saw the advent of
urbanization.
Settlement features
• The sites have been classified into three categories based on the area it occupies –
villages/hamlets, towns, and cities. The towns and cities grew out of the earlier villages.
During the early phases sites like Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan existed in the form of
rural settlements. The settlement began with a small population and grew in size and became
large settlements with more density of population, agricultural base, developed trade and
specialized crafts and arts.
Town Planning
• The most interesting feature of the Harappan civilization is its town planning. It has
uniformity though regional variations can be observed.
• All the major sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan and others are divided
into two parts – a citadel on the higher level and a lower town. The citadel consisted
of large structures. The lower area contained residential buildings.
• The streets were built in a certain way so that they intersect each other at right
angles. It divides the city in residential blocks. The houses were largely built of
burnt bricks. Their sized differed from single-room houses to multistoried ones
• The houses had wells, kitchens and bathing platforms.
• The drainage system at Harappa was elaborate and well-laid. It is one of the striking
features. The drains were covered with manhole bricks or slabs. These were
constructed at regular intervals at the side of the streets. The remains of the
civilization show remarkable town planning and organization.
Subsistence & Agriculture
• The entire civilization covered a vast area and was rich in resources.
• The subsistence pattern of the Harappans can be known by studying the plant remains,
animal bones, artefacts, motifs, seals and pottery.
• Plant remains – as the area was vast there are regional variations. Wheat, barley, peas and
rice are found in the main sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Kalibangan, and Lothal. A
ploughed field was found in the early Harappan levels at Kalibangan and terracotta models
of ploughs were found at Banawali. Irrigation canals were found.
• Animal remains – bones of wild animals have been found at Harappan sites. These include a
variety of deer, pig, boar, sheep and goats. Bones of tortoises and fish have also been found.
Rhinoceros bones occur at Amri, it is interesting as this animal is depicted on numerous
seals and terracotta figurines.
• Harappan sites have also yielded the remains of domesticated animals like cattle, and
buffalo.
Craft Production
• Craft activities were known to the Harappan people.
There is a great variety of mass-produced,
standardized craft items at Harappan sites.
• Ceramics include all items involving the heating of
clay such as bricks, terracotta and faience. Harappan
pottery reflects mass production.
• Terracottas have been found at several Harappan sites.
There are terracotta figurines of animals such as bulls,
buffaloes, dogs etc. toy carts made of solid wheels
have been found.
• Beautifully worked gold and silver jewellery
consisting of necklaces, bracelets, brooches, pendants
and earrings have been found.
• Bead making was also known to them and semi-
precious stones were in use. Beads made of steatite,
agate, carnelian, and lapis lazuli are found in some of
the sites.
Seals
• Seal making was another important Harappan craft. Most of the seals
are rectangular or square. These seals are made of steatite, silver,
calcite etc. At Mohenjo-Daro, two fine seals with the unicorn motif
were discovered Motifs on the seal include elephant, tiger, crocodile,
humped bull, rhinoceros, and the one-horned mythical animal
referred to as a unicorn.
Trade
• One of the important aspects of the Harappan trade is the
identification of the sources of major raw materials used by the
Harappans.
• The contact between Harappans and Mesopotamia was ascertained
when the publication of seals and other objects found at Harappa
paved the way for the identification of similar finds at Mesopotamia
and Susa. Thus, establishing a link between these two great
civilizations.
Script
• The Harappan seals are engraved with various signs and characters.
The script has not been deciphered yet.
Religious Practice
• In the absence of an undeciphered script, knowledge of Harappan religious beliefs and practices is
based on the available seals and terracotta figurines. They were associated with nature worship.
• A large number of terracotta figurines discovered at the sites have been associated with the worship
of the mother goddess.
• Marshall also suggested that the Harappans worshipped a male god that is represented on a steatite
seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. It is usually referred to as the Pasupati seal shows a male figure
with a buffalo horn headdress seated on a dais with his legs bent and heels together and is flanked
by four animals- elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo and tiger.
• The burial practices and rituals related to it are important aspects of religion in any culture. In
Harappan burial sites, the dead were buried with a variety of goods such as bangles, beads etc.
Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial.
Socio-Political Structure
• As the script has not been discovered very limited information about the Harappan social and
political structure is known. The Harappan society may have comprised of professions such as the
priestly class, peasants, traders and artisans. They mostly used cotton and woolen clothes and were
fond of ornaments.
MOHENJO-DARO
• The site is presently located in the Larkana district of Punjab, Pakistan.
• The name means mound of the dead.
• Some important findings at this site are the great bath, granary, seal of
Pashupati, terracotta toys and three seals of Mesopotamian type.
• A few pieces of stone and metal sculptures have also been found. Two
bronze female figurines were found at Mohenjo-Daro out of which is
the famous dancing girl figurine. A stone sculpture of a bearded man
was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.
• The great bath is one of the salient features of Mohenjo-Daro. It
measures approximately 12 meters and maximum depth of 2.4 meters.
Two wide staircases, one from the north and one from the south served
as the entry to the structure. The floors and walls of the tank were
made watertight by finely fitted bricks laid edge to edge with gypsum
mortar.
• At the southwest corner, another huge structure has been identified as
the granary.
THE DECLINE OF THE CIVILIZATION

• At some point in time, the decline of the urban phase started. There are several theories on
the decline of civilization.
• Aryan invasion theory- it was believed that the Aryans coming by way of Afghanistan
invaded North-West India and captured the walled cities.
• Foreign invasion theory – few scholars’ have supported a foreign invasion theory to explain
the abrupt decline of the Indus culture.
• Climate change – Mortimer wheeler supported this theory and opined that the climate of the
region could have been a reason for the decline. Natural disasters, not necessarily sudden or
single, did have a role to play as layers of silt found at Mohenjo-Daro give evidence of
several episodes of Indus floods.
 PROBLEMS FACED WHILE PIECING TOGETHER THE
PAST
• As discussed earlier the Harappan script is not deciphered. In the absence of literary
evidence, we are dependent on the material sources such as pottery, seals, terracotta
figurines, craft, plant and animal remains and trade studies to piece together the story of the
civilization.
• Over time, these material remains have changed and few have perished which makes it
difficult to study and interpret them.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

• Short Answers:
• When was the Indus valley civilization discovered?
• Name the archaeologists who excavated Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
• Where is the great bath and granary located?

• Long Answers:
• Explain the salient features of the Harappan civilization.
• State the theories of the decline of civilization.
• Write a short note on the religious beliefs of Harappans.
UNTIL NEXT
TIME…