FPMgt.

FORAGE AND PASTURE

MANAGEMENT
FORAGE AND THEIR
IMPORTANCE TO
CIVILIZATION
LESSON 1
FORAGES AND PASTURE
Forages- grasses, legumes and other forbs grown for livestock feed.
Forages- plants or parts of plants eaten by herbivorous livestock (cattle,
sheep, goats, horses, llamas) and wildlife (deer, elk, moose, rabbits).
Forages- edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that provide
feed for animals, directly as grazing or harvested as hay or silage for
feeding. Forage plants can grow and regrow efficiently. Defoliation
actually stimulates their growth.
Pasture is an area of land occupied with forage plant species either natural
or planted by man for the purpose of providing qualitative feed to
livestock at the right quantity.
FORAGES - PASTURE
FORAGES AND PASTURE
 History of Forages

 Historians estimate that major grassland areas, such as the prairies of the
United States, the pampas of South America, the steppes of central
Asia, and the velds of Africa, began developing about 20-25 million
years ago.
 Because of the natural life and death cycle, over long periods of time,
the undisturbed grasslands produced a deep, fertile topsoil. These very
fertile grassland areas are still used today but often cultivated for
production of major food crops like wheat and corn, as well as for
forages. Before human activity began to alter grasslands they were
naturally maintained as productive grasslands by favorable climate,
grazing wildlife, and natural fires.
History of Forages

Prairies Pampas
History of Forages

Steppes Velds
 History of Forages

Early in human civilization, grasslands were not intensively managed in

the sense that they are today.
They were utilized by wandering animals and by people who used those
animals for food and other products.
As civilization continued to develop, humans began a process of
domesticating or taming some of the wandering animals and more
intensive management of livestock on forage lands developed.
Gradually a distinction evolved between grassland developed by man and
natural grasslands. This distinction is important in studying the types of
grasses grown.
 History of Forages

 Further changes in the principles and practices of producing forages began to

roughly parallel historical developments in agricultural technology in
general.
 For example, crop scientists began to search for and to breed higher yielding
varieties of crops. This process eventually was used to discover and breed
higher yielding and higher-quality forage crops.
 This process of discovery and breeding superior forage plants has played a
key role in the development of highly productive forage growth.
 Although there are 10,000 species of grasses, only about 40 - 50 are used on
grasslands developed by man. And none of these come from the world's natural
grasslands (Hoveland, 1987).
 History of Forages
 In many cases grasses from various forest edges and woodlands around the world
have ultimately become more important forage species than the species that are
considered native.
 Sometimes very important forage species were carried intentionally or
unintentionally by immigrants to their new homes.
 For example, alfalfa one of the most important forages in the U.S., originated in the
area of modern-day Iran and Turkey.
 Bermuda grass, a very important forage in the southern U.S., was apparently
brought to the country inadvertently by African slave ships. It was stuffed into
mattresses as bedding and eventually some of the seed ended up in places where it grew
successfully.
 Kentucky bluegrass, well known pasture grass, was apparently introduced to
America from England as part of the sweepings of cattle boats.
 FORAGE CROPS
Pastures-basic feed resources for livestock worldwide and in humid areas
mixed farming systems supply over 90% of the milk, 70% of sheep and
goat meat, and 35% of beef.
 The development of integrated systems based on annual crops in
association and rotation with pastures and forages for livestock, responds to
a variety of needs to:
 intensify crop production;
 increase profitability and precision of inputs;
 increase farmers’ security;
 preserve natural resources and the environment.
 History of Forages

Alfalfa Bermuda Grass

Cattle Boat

Kentucky Bluegrass
WHY DO WE NEED FORAGES
AND PASTURES?
 FORAGE AND PASTURE PRODUCTION

 Importance to Civilization
 Product
 Environmental Benefits
 Economic Benefits
Forages Crops
Forages Crops
 Importance to Civilization

Product
 A wide variety of products and services are directly
dependent on successful forage production.
 Many of us are largely unaware or forgetful that the
source of the daily products we take for granted are
agricultural raw materials.
 It would be correct to say that they are derived from
animals. But what enables animals to produce any of
these products? Their source of energy for living and
producing is found in the food they eat. Much of the food
of animals is FORAGES.
 Importance to Civilization

Environmental benefit
Forages are extremely important in the
production of food and fiber. However, forages
also play a vitally important role in maintaining a
good natural environment.
Specifically, communities of forage plants
produce oxygen for clean air, help to reduce
soil erosion, aid in keeping sediment out of
waterways, provide food and shelter for wildlife,
and beautify our surroundings with a variety of
foliage and flowers.
 Importance to Civilization

 Environmental benefits
 Row crops are 10-50% more
likely to exhibit erosion than
pastures and meadows of forages.
 Importance to Civilization
 Economic Benefits
 Forages, whether they exist on farms,
grasslands and rangeland make up one half
of the total land in America.
 Although measuring the full value of
forages is difficult, since much of it is not
harvested and sold as a product, it is
estimated that 1/4 of the total value of
agriculture is comprised of forages.
 Importance to Civilization

Economic Benefits
Overall economic value of harvested forages and
pastures is on the order of 18 billion dollars (Black,
1995).
If the total value of all the products derived from
animals living on forages and the draft power and
fertilizer that exist with domesticated animals is
added up, forages could be one of our most valuable
resources and our best potential for the future.
WHAT IS A LIVESTOCK?
 WHAT IS A LIVESTOCK?
 Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor
and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather,
and wool.
 The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals who are raised for consumption,
and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, goat,
and pigs.
 Forage and
pasture defined

Lesson 2
 Forages Crops

 Generally farmers invest more labour and inputs

to produce a crop (such as rice, cotton, soybean,
maize, rubber and coconut) than to produce
forage for livestock.
 However, the production of pastures is as
important as the production of crops to
increase farm income and security, to improve
biodiversity and environmental benefits, to
improve efficiency of fertilizers and zero
tillage.
 Forage Crops
 Forage crops have been found to produce high
yields of plant material, which are also high in
nutrients suitable for livestock requirements for
maintenance and production.
 Natural pasture is a forage but is not grown as a
crop, so is termed forage, not a forage crop.
 Forage crops produce much higher yields than
natural forages and because they produce high
yields, can be fed to cattle as both green forage
during the rains and conserved for the long dry
season.
 Forages Crops

Forages are plants or parts of plants eaten by livestock

(cows, horses, sheep, goats, llamas), and wildlife (deer,
elk, moose, rabbits).
There are many different types of forages. Some of the
most important are listed in the table below.
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Forage Edible parts of plants, other than

separated grain, that can provide feed
for grazing animals, or that can be
harvested for feeding. Includes browse,
herbage, and mast.

Browse Leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody

vines, trees, cacti, and other non-
herbaceous vegetation available for
animal consumption.
 Forage Type and Definition
Definitions Images

Herbage The biomass of herbaceous plants, other

than separated grain, generally above
ground but including edible roots and
tubers.

Forb Any herbaceous broadleaf plant that is

not a grass and is not grass-like. Milk Weed
Vegetatio
n Terms
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Legume Members of the plant family Fabaceae.

 Ipil-ipil – Leucaena leucocephala

Grass Members of the plant family Poaceae.

 Para grass – Brachiaria mutica
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Grass-like Vegetation that is similar to grass in

appearance and is usually a member of
the plant family Cyperaceae (sedges) or
Juncaceae (rushes).

Pasturage Not a recommended term. The

recommended definition of pasture
refers to a specific kind of grazing
management unit, not that which is
consumed, which is forage. Thus,
pasturage is not a useful term.
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Mast Fruits and seeds of shrubs, woody

vines, trees, cacti, and other non-
herbaceous vegetation available
for animal consumption.

Forage crop A crop of cultivated plants or plant

parts, other than separated grain,
produced to be grazed or harvested
for use as feed for animals.
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Aftermath Forage grown following a harvest.

Residue Forage remaining on the land as a

consequence of harvest.
 Forage Type and Definition
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Silage Forage preserved in a succulent

condition by partial anaerobic,
acid fermentation.
Hay Grass or other plants, such as
clover or alfalfa, cut and dried for
fodder.
Haylage Product resulting from ensiling
forage with around 45% moisture,
in the absence of oxygen.
FORAGES TYPE AND DEFINITION
Vegetation Terms Definitions Images

Fodder Coarse grasses such as corn and

sorghum harvested with the seed
and leaves green or alive, then
cured and fed in their entirely as
forage.

Green chop Fresh cut forages.

USES AND TYPES OF
FORAGE AND
PASTURE
LESSON 3
 Uses and types of forage and pasture
 Uses of forage crops
 They are used as livestock feeds
 They are used as cover crops which
conserve soil moisture
 They help in discouraging weed growth
 Some are leguminous in nature which
enriches soil nutrients
 For prevention of erosion
 Used as green manure
 Used for roofing farm sheds
 As bedding materials
 Uses and types of forage and pasture (Uses of forages)

 They are used as livestock

feeds
 Uses and types of forage and pasture (Uses of forages)

 They are used as cover crops which

conserve soil moisture
 Uses and types of forage and pasture (Uses of forages)

 They help in discouraging weed

growth
 Some are leguminous in nature which
enriches soil nutrients
 Uses and types of forage and pasture (Uses of forages)

 For prevention of erosion

Uses and types of forage and pasture (Uses of forages)

 Used for roofing farm

sheds
 As bedding materials
 Types of Forage and Pasture
 Natural pasture or natural grassland
or rangeland - a piece of land on which
grasses and legumes grow naturally on
their own and are fed upon by farm
animals.
Artificial pasture – also referred to as
established or sown pasture in a piece of
land that is where grasses and legumes are
cultivated and managed by man to be fed
by livestock.
 Characteristics or features of natural pasture

It contains poor quality grasses and

legumes
It contains soil types that are low in
fertility or nutrient
It contain wide varieties of grasses and
legumes, some of which may not be eaten
by livestock
It has a good regenerative ability
crops here can withstand trampling
 Characteristics or features of natural pasture

 It contains poor quality grasses

and legumes
 Characteristics or features of natural pasture

 It contains soil types that are

low in fertility or nutrient
 Characteristics or features of natural pasture

 It contain wide varieties of grasses and legumes, some of which

may not be eaten by livestock
 Characteristics or features of natural pasture

 It has a good regenerative ability

 crops here can withstand
trampling
 Characteristics or artificial pasture

 It contain high-quality grasses and

legumes
 It contain no weeds
 Selected grasses and legumes are
grown in adequate proportion
 Has a high regenerative ability
 Can withstand trampling by farm
animals
 Characteristics or artificial pasture

 It contain high-quality grasses

and legumes
 Characteristics or artificial pasture

 Selected grasses and legumes are

grown in adequate proportion
 Characteristics or artificial pasture

 Has a high regenerative

ability
 Can withstand trampling
by farm animals
 QUALITY OF A
GOOD PASTURE
PLANT

Lesson 4
 Quality of a good pasture plant
 Ability to regenerate fast after being
browsed
 Ability to withstand trampling
 It must be highly palatable
 It must possess high value of nutrients
 Ability to withstand extreme climatic
condition
 It must have a high leaf to stem ratio
 Quality of a good pasture plant

It must be highly

palatable
It must possess high
value of nutrients
 Quality of a good pasture plant
 Ability to withstand extreme
climatic condition
 It must have a high leaf to stem
ratio
 Production of Forages
 Philippines is a tropical country, local forage (which includes grasses,
legumes, and broadleaf non-legumes) are abundantly available. However,
there is still a need for the establishment of forage nurseries and
plantations to ensure a continuous supply of feed for livestock.
 Properly manage forage plantations will provide a good quality feed and
this will be resulting in better nutrition of livestock. Animal grower must
also be educated as to which parts of the plants are edible for particular
livestock, since these animals have tendency to be selective.
 Production of Forage
 Forage may be integrated in plantations and planted
under coconut trees.
 They have several uses on top of providing a source
of feed in livestock.
 They may also be used as living fences, trellises for
climbing plants, and ground cover that can help
prevent soil erosion and degradation.
 Some forage plants are nitrogen fixers and can
increase soil fertility.
 They also provide other agricultural products like
firewood and charcoal.
 The sale of these plant’s seeds, seedlings, and
planting materials can be a source of additional
income to the animal raisers.
 Production of Forage
 Forage crops and crop residues will remain
the cheapest sources of feeds for ruminants
even in the very distant future.
 Feed grains turn out to be more expensive
because their use as feeds for poultry and
swine compete with human consumption.
 The improved management of pastures,
production of quality fodder crops and
efficient utilization of crop residues would be
the key factors to a viable expansion and
development of our livestock industry
particularly of cattle, carabao and goats.
 In general, four types of livestock production exist, namely:
(a) commercial or extensive ranch type,
(b) pastures under plantation crops,
(c) integration with dominant cropping systems and;
(d) small holder or backyard feedlot.
 Of the forage resources, it is estimated that the Philippines has 3.5 million
hectares of open grasslands and about 400,000 hectares out of the 2.5 million
hectares of land under coconuts which are currently utilized for grazing.
 There are also about 200,000 hectares of forest plantations which are potentially
available for grazing but which are hardly utilized at present. At the small holder
level, animals subsist mainly on weeds, crop residues and other by-products
derived from 3.6 million hectares of rice land, 3.4 million hectares of corn lands
and 533.000 hectares of sugarcane lands.
 Table 2. Classification of pasture and forage resources and potential carrying capacities

CLASSIFICATION AREA (ha) CARRYING Total Au

CAPACITY (Au/Ha)

A. Commercial Grazing Lands

Arable area, improved 10,000 2.0 20,000
Arable area, unimproved 180,000 2.5 90,000
Non- arable area 760,000 0.25 190,000
Total 950,000 350,000
B. Pastures under Coconuts 400,000 1.0 400,000
C. Integration with dominant 250,000 0.5 125,000
cropping systems
D. Small Holder Farms
Rice lands 3.6M 0.5 1.8M
Corn lands 3.4M 2.0 7.8M
Sugarcane 0.53M 2.0 1.06M
11.0M
 In the Philippines, about 90% of the ruminant population belong to the
background or smallholder sector (Lanting et al. 1995). In this sector, livestock
production is component of an intensive, mixed farming system (horne, et al.
1997).
 Most of the smallholders are basically crop farmers; are specialised livestock
producers. Livestock are kept for draft and, at the same time, as source of cash
income. Under this system, livestock accounts for more than half of the
household income, representing a component that is maintained with minimal
inputs and readily converted to cash in times of need.
 Ruminants raised in smaller holder systems are fed native vegetation and crop
residues with minimal or no supplementation. Fattening is not commonly
practiced. The major objective is reproduction, as more offspring means more
sources of income and less risk. Animals are usually sold on a per head basis,
with little incentive for well fattened stock.
 Most of the smallholder farmers in the Philippines have observed poor
performance of their animals, which they attribute to insufficient quality
and quantity feed. This is associated with little feed in the dry season and
limited area for grazing and has lead to overgrazing.
 The Philippines produces only 1% of its total milk supply; the rest is
imported. One reason for this is the common practice of feeding dairy
cows via the cut-and-carry method, where grasses are planted in a
separate lot and harvested daily to feed the dairy cows. The source of
planting materials is one of the major problems of dairy farmers. In
native cattle raising, indigenous forage is sufficient to nourish the small-
frame native animals.
 Nutrition provided to milking cows greatly affects milk
production as well as milk quality. With the downward trend
in supply and quality of available roughage in the
Philippines, there is a continuous effort to introduce new
species of forage that would meet the demand of the
country’s growing dairy industry.
 Thus, good quality forage species should also be made
accessible to local farmers for proper nutrition of dairy cattle,
which translates to high milk volume.
 FORAGES FROM A LIVESTOCK PERSPECTIVE
 Dairy cows expected to produce massive amounts of milk are most intensely monitored.
Providing feed to dairy cows is important.
 Sheep are next in the line for needing attention to forage nutrient needs followed by beef,
horses, and wildlife.
 Though dairy cows need significant feed, the largest overall market is beef because they
provide so many products and cannot produce on a continuous nature as milking cows
can.
 About 30% of consumer expenditures are spent on beef and dairy products. The changes
in society leading to new products (synthetic fabrics instead of natural fibers, cars instead
of animal powered machines, and such) have caused the decrease in sheep and horse
industries.
 Swine could be larger consumers of forages if the industry utilized free range feeding,
but swine cannot as efficiently handle forages because of their monogastric digestive
systems.
 FORAGES FROM A LIVESTOCK PERSPECTIVE
 Another way to look at how forages and
livestock go hand in hand is to look at the
percentage of nutrients each type of livestock
receives from forages with much of the
remaining percentages being grain products
which are also from the grass family.
 Sheep get 91% of their nutrients from forages,
beef get 83%, horses 72%, dairy 61% and swine
get 15%. These figures reveal several things.
 Swine handle other types of feed better because
of their stomachs but utilize some grasses and
legumes.
 FORAGES FROM A LIVESTOCK PERSPECTIVE
 Dairy cows need feed high in nutrients and need it provided in
concentrated amounts for abundant milk production so grasses
and legumes are supplemented with rations.
 Beef cattle can do quite well on grasses and legumes but the
industry "finishes" cattle with grain to answer the demand of the
public for tender meat with more, whiter fat which results when
cattle are restricted from exercise and fed grain rations.
 Horses are used more as recreation animals or racehorses and
often are given a more pampering diet.
Forages are utilized in different ways and to different extents in the following systems.
a. Dairy systems
 Forages play an important role in dairy systems because dairy cows need a lot of
nutrients in order to produce large quantities of milk. The milk production is also easily
affected by changes in nutrient intake. This is not as acute in wool and meat production.
 Forage quality is important but quantity is also important for high-level production
since the farmer already has the cows, their shelter, and other fixed costs. More feed
will directly yield more milk without increasing the number of cows, improved shelter,
or other fixed costs. Currently in this country, high-energy concentrates are inexpensive
and used to increase milk production. However, if grains and other components of feed
rations become expensive, dairy farmers would utilize forages to a greater extent.
Forages are utilized in different ways and to different extents in the
following systems.
a. Dairy systems
 Dairy farmers need to carefully determine the nutritional requirements of
the various animals and match that with the forage supply.
 Dairy production is a year-long process so the forage supply and quality
must be constant. Dairy systems require the most monitoring of diet and
the best planning for weather or storage problems.
 They need an adequate supply of high-quality forage. Conserved forages
are often of average quality and must be supplemented or used for dry
cows or replacement heifers.
b. Beef systems
 Farmers and ranchers producing beef
usually work one of three situations: cow-
calf, stockers (yearlings), or finished
cattle. But in all three situations there is
less need for constant high-quality forage
than dairy operations.
 The emphasis is placed on matching the
supply of high-quality forages with stages
of growth requiring high nutrients.
 b. Beef systems
 When raising a cow to be slaughtered for beef, the young calf and the period just
before slaughter require the most nutrients. They need a lot of high-quality forage.
Besides these two stages, the cow between calving and breeding needs good forage to
build good health.
 In cow-calf operations cow health must be maintained in order to continue healthy
offspring. Calves must be well-fed in yield high-quality beef. At around four months
of age calves begin to utilize forage for greater and greater amounts of their nutrition.
 Cows are not required to supply as much milk so their forage needs drop. This is one
of the shifts that occur in cow-calf operations. Since there are times when nutritional
needs are not as demanding, grazing serves a vital role in these operations.
b. Beef systems
 Pastures of perennial grasses and legumes, usually warm and cool season
varieties are well utilized. Excess forages from pastures can be harvested
and stored as hay or silage for winter feed. When grazing is available for
much of the year, some feed is purchased and harvesting costs are avoided.
Since there are times when some of the animals have low nutritional needs,
annual miscellaneous forages can serve a role.
 First-last grazing and creep grazing are often implemented. Again these
are used to match the nutritional needs with the available forage. Breeding
and calving season are often designed to allow better matching of nutrition
to forage supplies.
b. Beef systems
 Creep grazing is used when the mother is
still nursing her offspring. The mothers are
grazing a base pasture and adjacent to the
base pasture is a creep pasture that has been
planted to a forage that is high in nutritive
value.
 First-last grazing is a method of utilizing
two or more groups of animals, usually with
different nutritional requirements, to graze
sequentially on the same land area.
b. Beef systems
 Stocker operations or yearling operations, require a use
of forages to meet weight gain goals at a specific time.
Weight gain cannot occur without a proper schedule or the
gain will be fat deposits. These operations require many
calculations to meet weight gain goals.
 Grazing is often the best way to gain properly in this
situation and utilizing stored feed is minimized. The
exercise and movement of the grazing animal is beneficial.
 Perennial forages are often used with supplemental
overseeding of annuals to provide extensive grazing
opportunities.
 Stocker operators need to understand nutrient needs and
grass regrowth mechanisms to facilitate the process.
b. Beef systems
 Finishing systems aim to prepare cattle for slaughter. Because
of the demand for certain tastes, textures, and physical
characteristics by the American public finishing programs need
to be planned.
 Finishing programs may use all grazed forage, some grain
supplements, short-term high-energy silage, or feedlot rations.
While the public wants a certain look, taste, and texture, there
have been concerns presented for less fat, more humane
treatment of animals, and environmentally friendly operations.
So the use of grain to finish cattle may lead to more of a forage-
fed beef market.
 But this would require more time in the finishing process. The
new regime would require a thorough understanding of forage
quality. The attributes of corn and other grains as well as forage
grasses and legumes is required.
c. Sheep systems
 Sheep often utilize forages for most of their growth and
production. They efficiently use the grazed forages and are
less sensitive to changes.
 Their breeding and reproduction cycles are shorter and
therefore can be more creatively adjusted to utilize forage
growth.
 Lactation is a time for high- quality forages but that heavy
lactation lasts only 4 weeks. High-quality forage is not
recommended for dry ewes because there is a link with
reduced fertility and poor gestation.
 First-last and creep grazing is well used. Ewes preparing
for breeding and lambs need high-quality forages. Sheep
operators need to understand the reproductive cycle and how
to best utilize forage supplies at various stages.
d. Horse systems
 Horses are the other grazing animal most often a part of a
livestock system. However, horses are often recreational
animals and no production goal is set that requires
monitoring of forage supplies.
 Many have associated Kentucky bluegrass or timothy with
horses, but if horses are to be well - maintained, horse
owners must look at the nutritional needs of horses and
match the appropriate forage species.
 Horses are large animals and selectively choose their food
because of their two sets of teeth and agile lips.
 Grazing can be very productive and beneficial when
trampling, pugging, and selectivity are well understood.
We may expect horses to supply milk, wool, steaks, or
other specific products but their diet is important to long
life and good health
 CHAPTER 2.
COMMON GRASSES
AND
LEGUMES OF
LIVESTOCK
 GRASSES
 Grasses belong to the Poaceae family which is
also known as Gramineae.
 Grasses are usually herbaceous which indicate
that they produce a seed, do not develop
woody tissue, and die down at the end of a
growing season.
 They are monocotyledonous which means one
leaf sprouts from the seed, and often have
jointed, slender, sheathed leaves. A cotyledon
is the first leaf to emerge from a seed.
GRASSES
 GRASSES
 Can be large, like bamboo or corn, or small like annual bluegrass.
Grass plants develop fruit called grain which feed much of the
world and yet have green leaves and stems not digestible for
humans that are the main food source for animals.
 Can also be used for building materials, medicines, and biomass
fuels.
 Grasses form the foundation of forage-livestock systems around
the world because they can be consumed and converted by animals
into useful products.
 Consumption assumes the grass is harvested directly through
grazing, or by machine for greenchop, silage, or hay. Knowing
when and how to harvest for optimal forage quantity and quality
while safeguarding the persistence of stands requires an
understanding of grass growth and regrowth mechanisms.
 GRASSES

 Voisin (1959) aptly stated that "A pasture plant

must be capable of growing again after it has been
cut either by the tooth of an animal or by the blade
of a mower." Grass has the capacity of regrowing
because it has a growing point that remains low and
mechanisms for tillering - production of new shoots
(daughter plants).
 Grass
 Grasses can be extremely productive when managed properly because they will grow
back throughout the season when defoliated (grazed or mowed) properly. In fact,
grasses will be healthier and more productive when defoliation occurs at the right time
and in the right way.
 To maximize grass growth and therefore yield, knowledge of grass growth must be
understood and appropriately applied.
 The first step in understanding grass growth is an awareness of the different groups into
which grasses can be categorized.
 Grasses can have annual or perennial life cycles, tall or short statures, jointed or non-
jointed regrowth mechanisms, sod or bunch growth habits, warm or cool-season
responses to climates, and requirements or no requirements for vernalization.
 GRASS TYPES
ANNUALS
 Plants with annual life cycles complete their growth cycle in a single growing
season (which is not usually an entire year), and are perpetuated by seed. The major
row crop plants of the world are annuals; corn, rice, wheat, and barley.
BIENNIALS
 Biennials are plants that take two seasons or years to complete their growth cycle.
The first year is a time for accumulating food reserves in storage organs. The
second season produces reproductive flowers and seed. Some of the root crops,
such as beets, carrots, and parsnips, some ornamental shrubs like hollyhock, and
some vegetables like onions and cabbage are biennials. There are no common
biennial grasses.
 Grass-Type
PERENNIALS
 Perennials are plants that continue to grow indefinitely. Some may die back to the
ground each winter (herbaceous perennials), but revive from the roots in the next
spring.
 They propagate by tillers and seeds. Many of the forage grasses function in this way.
 Most perennial plants add new growth each year as trees do. Some species,
especially tropical forms like the tomato, are perennials but are cultivated as annuals
in certain climates. Some annuals can be managed to be short-term perennials.
 This general understanding of plant classifications will help grass managers to
understand the normal cycle of their grasses and help them make decisions on how to
select forage species and maximize their production.