G10-3G (What Is Evolution)

What is Evolution?
Explain how fossils records, comparative

1 anatomy, and genetic information provide
evidence for evolution
Objective
2 Explain the different evidences of
evolution
At the end
of this
lesson, you
3 Define fossil and fossil record.
should be
able to:
4 Differentiate homologous structures
from vestigial structures.
A famed philosopher
once said, “The only
thing that is constant in
this world is change.”
Scientists have also observed that
many of the species in the past closely
resemble the extant species of today.
Extant species are ones that still exist

and are alive in the present.
EVOLUTION-genetic change in a
population of organisms over time
Learn about it!
Evolution
● Though commonly
referred to as “the
theory of evolution”, it is
no longer a theory but a
known and proven
scientific fact.
● It is transformation of Human evolution entails several

species through time. changes in the primate line.
Learn about it!
Evolution
● It involves the changes
that happen within a
species, as well as the
origin of new species.
● The emergence of new

species is known as the
speciation. Human evolution entails several
changes in the primate line.
Learn about it!
Evolutionary Principles
1. Evolutions occurs at the
population level.
2. The changes that happen

should be inherited.
3. Evolution is a result of
genetic variation. Human evolution entails several
changes in the primate line.
Learn about it!
Evolution in Populations
● The changes happen at
the population level.
● Population
is the sum of all
organisms of the same
group or species, which Elephants evolved to have trunk
live in a certain area, and tusks at the population
and are capable of level.
Learn about it!
Evolution and Heritable

Traits
● Heritable
traits include natural hair
color, natural skin color, and
eye color.
● Non-heritable
traits include changes that
happen artificially, like dyed Eye color is one of the
hair color or skin color after heritable traits in humans.
tanning.
Learn about it!
Evolution and Genetic Variation

● Traits of an organism are
dictated by its DNA.
● The DNA contains the

genes that code for
virtually all of an
organism’s
characteristics. The mutations in DNA are raw
materials for evolution.
Learn about it!
Evolution and Genetic Variation

● The genotype is a set of
genes in DNA that
determines a particular
phenotype or specific
physical characteristic.
● Alleles are the

alternative forms of a The mutations in DNA are raw
gene. materials for evolution.
Gregor
Mendel
(1822-1884)
Responsible
for the Laws
governing
Inheritance
of Traits
copyright cmassengale 13
Gregor Johann Mendel
▪Austrian monk
Studied the inheritance
of traits in pea plants
Developed the laws of
inheritance
Mendel's work was not
recognized until the
turn of the 20th
century
Gregor Johann Mendel
Between 1856 and
1863, Mendel
cultivated and tested
some 28,000 pea plants
He found that the
plants' offspring
retained traits of the
parents
Called the “Father of
Genetics"
Site of
Gregor
Mendel’s
experiment
al garden
in the
Czech
Republic
Particulate Inheritance
Mendel stated that
physical traits are
inherited as “particles”
Mendel did not know that
the “particles” were
actually Chromosomes &
DNA
Genetic Terminology
Trait - any characteristic
that can be passed from
parent to offspring
Heredity - passing of traits
from parent to offspring
Genetics - study of heredity
Types of Genetic
Crosses
Monohybrid cross - cross
involving a single trait
e.g. flower color
Dihybrid cross - cross
involving two traits
e.g. flower color & plant
height
Punnett Square
Used to help solve
genetics problems
Designer “Genes”
Alleles - two forms of a gene
(dominant & recessive)
Dominant - stronger of two
genes expressed in the hybrid;
represented by a capital letter
(R)
Recessive - gene that shows up
less often in a cross;
represented by a lowercase
More Terminology
Genotype - gene
combination for a trait (e.g.
RR, Rr, rr)
Phenotype - the physical
feature resulting from a
genotype (e.g. red, white)
Monohybrid
Crosses
P1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Shape
Alleles: R – Round r – Wrinkled
Cross: Round seeds x Wrinkled
seeds
RR x rr
Genotype: Rr
r r
Phenotype:
Round
R Rr Rr
Genotypic
Ratio: All alike
R Rr Rr
Phenotypic
Ratio: All alike
P1 Monohybrid Cross
Review
▪ Homozygous dominant x
Homozygous recessive
▪ Offspring all Heterozygous
(hybrids)
▪ Offspring called F1 generation
▪ Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio
is ALL ALIKE
F1 Monohybrid Cross
Trait: Seed Shape
Cross: Round seeds x Round seeds
Rr x Rr
Genotype: RR, Rr,

R r rr
Phenotype: Round
R R Rr &
R wrinkled
r Rr rr G.Ratio: 1:2:1
P.Ratio: 3:1
F1 Monohybrid Cross
Review
▪ Heterozygous x heterozygous
▪ Offspring:
25% Homozygous dominant RR
50% Heterozygous Rr
25% Homozygous Recessive rr
▪ Offspring called F2 generation
▪ Genotypic ratio is 1:2:1
▪ Phenotypic Ratio is 3:1
What Do the Peas Look
Like?
…And Now the Test Cross
Mendel then crossed a pure &
a hybrid from his F2
generation
This is known as an F2 or test
cross
There are two possible
testcrosses:
Homozygous dominant x
Hybrid copyright cmassengale 34
F2 Monohybrid Cross (1st)
Trait: Seed Shape
Cross: Round seeds x Round seeds
RR x Rr
Genotype: RR,
R r Rr
Phenotype:
R R Rr Round
R
Genotypic
R R Rr Ratio: 1:1
R Phenotypic
F2 Monohybrid Cross (2nd)
Trait: Seed Shape
Cross: Wrinkled seeds x Round seeds
rr x Rr
R r Genotype: Rr, rr
Phenotype:
r Rr rr Round &
Wrinkled
r Rr rr G. Ratio: 1:1
P.Ratio: 1:1
F2 Monohybrid Cross
Review
▪ Homozygous x
heterozygous(hybrid)
▪ Offspring:
50% Homozygous RR or rr
50% Heterozygous Rr
▪ Phenotypic Ratio is 1:1
▪ Called Test Cross because the
offspring have SAME genotype
as parents
Dihybrid Cross
Traits: Seed shape & Seed color
Alleles: R round
r wrinkled
Y yellow
y green
RrYy x RrYy
RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry
All possible gamete combinations

Dihybrid Cross
R R r r
Y y Y y
R
Y
R
y
r
Y
r
y
Dihybrid Cross
Round/
R R r r Yellow: 9
Y y Y y
R RR RR Rr Rr Round/
9:3:3:1
Y YY Yy YY Yy green: 3
phenotypi
R RR RR Rr Rr c
y Yy yy Yy yy wrinkled/
ratio Yellow: 3
r Rr Rr rr rr
Y YY Yy YY Yy
wrinkled/
r Rr Rr rr rr green: 1
y Yy yy Yy yy
Dihybrid Cross
Round/Yellow: 9
Round/green: 3
wrinkled/Yellow:
3
wrinkled/green:
1
9:3:3:1
Learn about it!
Mechanisms of Speciation
● Anagenesis is the
evolution of a species
into a new lineage.
● The ancestor ceases to

exist as a result.
Anagenesis and cladogenesis

Learn about it!
Mechanisms of Speciation
● Cladogenesis is the
splitting into multiple
lineages or gene pools.
● The ancestral line persists

and survives.
Anagenesis and cladogenesis

Learn about it!
What is Evolution?
• Change in a population of organisms over time.
• The slow, gradual change in a species over time.
• ‘Slow’ means thousands to millions of years (in most cases)...
• Species with short reproductive rates; like bacteria, evolve
quickly. Bacteria reproduce about every 20 minutes.
• Just in the last few millions of years, hundreds of species have
become extinct- while hundreds of others have developed.
 How do we know evolution is happening? Let’s look at the

evidence…
Learn about it!
 4 Types of Evidence that scientists have

gathered in support of evolution
• Fossils
• Comparative Anatomy & Structures
• Embryology
• Genetic Information
Learn about it!
FOSSILS
• Any trace or remains of an organism that has
been preserved by natural processes.
• Studying fossils allows scientists to compare the
remains of ancient organisms with present day
species to determine evolutionary relationships.
• Fossils form from amber, ice, tar, petrification,
bones buried under sedimentary rock.
• The older the fossil, the deeper it will be buried.
Learn about it!
What is a FOSSIL?
The preserved remains or traces of an organism that is no
longer living
Usually found in
sedimentary rocks
Learn about it!
Classifying Fossils
● Two factors are used to classify fossils.
○ Age: This gives information on when the organisms

lived relative to each other, and relative dating
and absolute dating are the most common
methods to determine it.
○ Types: This refers to the type of object that is

fossilized. They can be mold fossils, true fossils,
cast fossils, or trace fossils.
Learn about it!
Classifying Fossils
• Fossilization-is the process of an animal or
plant becoming preserved in a hard, petrified
form. Fossilization often results in the
impression of an organism being left in a
rock. When a leaf or an animal skeleton
becomes a fossil, that's fossilization.
Learn about it!
Classifying Fossils
• Body Fossils-it is usually the hard parts of the
body.
 Like the bones, teeth and shells which are
fossilized.
• Trace Fossils-on the other hand, are the
preserved marks of activity left behind by an
organism when it was still alive.
 This can be a footprint, feces or even the imprint of
an ancient plant.
Learn about it!
Types of Fossils:
1. IMPRINT – thin, soft object (leaf, feather) is buried
and sediments later harden
2. MOLD – Buried organism disappears and leaves an
empty space
3. CAST – mold filled by
minerals (replica of organism)
4. PETRIFICATION – minerals
replace hard parts (bones, teeth, etc.) of
organism
5. AMBER – entire organism fossilized in tree sap
6. FROZEN – entire organism frozen in ice
7. TRACE – footprints, trails, etc.
Learn about it!
Age: Relative Dating

● This refers to the
method of determining
the age of a rock layer
and the fossils within it
based on sequences
of events.
Certain rock layers can serve as

benchmarks for dates.
Learn about it!
Age: Absolute Dating

● Absolute dating gives a numerical estimate of the age
of the object being tested.
Absolute dating uses the half-life of decaying materials.

Learn about it!
How can fossil age be determined?

Depth of fossils help to determine their age
Lower layers are older than those in upper layers
Radioactive Isotope Dating
Carbon-14, Uranium-238,
Potassium-40
Measure the proportion of an
isotope relative to its more
stable form (half life)
Learn about it!
The Fossil Record
The fossil record is made up of all the fossils ever

discovered on Earth.
The fossil record provides evidence that species
have changed
over time.
Based on fossil evidence,
scientists can recreate
the physical appearance
of species that are no
longer alive on Earth.
Learn about it!
Why is the fossil record incomplete?

1. Soft tissue rarely preserved
2. Movement of the earth’s crust has
obliterated or covered many fossils
3. Fossilization takes place only in certain
types of habitats and under favorable
conditions
4. Paleontologists have not dug up every
place on earth
Learn about it!
Extinctions
Extinction occurs when the last individual

organism of a species dies.
A mass extinction occurs when many species
become extinct within a few million years or less.
Extinctions can occur when environments
change.
Learn about it!
Comparative
Anatomy
Body parts and structures of organisms serve as
evidence of evolution. If some organisms possess
similarities in body structures, this may suggest an
indirect relationship with other organisms.
Learn about it!
Structures and Evolution
● There are relationships between the structures of

certain organisms. These relationships serve as
evidence of evolution.
● The types of structures that provide evidence of

evolution are homologous, analogous, and
vestigial structures.
Learn about it!
Homologous Structures
● Homologous structures are
body parts of different
organisms with similar forms
but the functions are not
necessarily the same.
● means similarities in the body
structures of different species, which
may have come from common
ancestors. These structures do not The human arms, whale flippers, and
have necessarily have the same bat wings are homologous structures.
Learn about it!
ARM LEG Flipper Wing
Learn about it!
● These structures may
come from the same
sources but have
possibly evolved as a
result of different
pressures.
The human arms, whale flippers, and

bat wings are homologous structures.
Learn about it!
Serial Homologies
● Serial homologies refer
to the repeating structures
found within an organism.
● These structure roughly

perform the same
function, but they may
have different The vertebral column is made
specializations. of units called the vertebrae.
Learn about it!
Homologies and Evolution

● Homologous structures suggest descent from common
ancestry.
Learn about it!
Homologies and Evolution
● For example, limbs of tetrapods (amphibians, birds,

reptiles, and mammals) share the same arrangement of
bones.
○ They are all composed of the humerus, radius, and
ulna.
○ However, these limbs serve different functions.
Learn about it!
Analogous Structures
● Analogous structures are
those with the same
function but have evolved
differently.
● Examples include insect

and bird wings, which both
function for flight, but these Wings of birds, bats, and
traits arose insects are analogous
independently from each structures.
Learn about it!
 Analogous structures are

similar in function but differ in
structure
 Analogous structures DO NOT
show common ancestry
Fly wing
Bat wing
68
Learn about it!
Analogies and Evolution

● Analogous structures do not
give much perspective
about how related lineages
evolved.
● However,they can give a

view of the environmental
pressures that organisms
had to overcome. The modified structures of sweet
potatoes (root) and potatoes (stem) are
Challenge Yourself
How do
homologous
structures prove
evolution?
Learn about it!
Embryology
Patterns of embryological
development can indicate a
common ancestry
Fish, birds, mammals & reptiles all have
gills; only fish retain theirs
Fish, birds, humans & reptiles all have tails;
ALL but humans retain theirs
Learn about it!
The science of the development

of embryos from fertilization to
birth is
called embryology.
Learn about it!
Genetic Information
Another evidence of evolution is provided by
the biochemical analysis and amino acid
sequence of the organisms’ DNA. The greater
the similarity in amino acid sequence, the
closer the relationship of the organisms. The
organisms which are similar in structure and
also possess similarity at the biochemical level could
probably have a common ancestor.
Learn about it!
Challenge Yourself
Why do traits
need to be
heritable for
evolution to
take place?

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What is Evolution?

Explain how fossils records, comparative

Extant species are ones that still exist

● It is transformation of Human evolution entails several

● The emergence of new

2. The changes that happen

Evolution and Heritable

Evolution and Genetic Variation

● The DNA contains the

Evolution and Genetic Variation

● Alleles are the

Genotype: RR, Rr,

All possible gamete combinations

● The ancestor ceases to

Anagenesis and cladogenesis

● The ancestral line persists

Anagenesis and cladogenesis

 How do we know evolution is happening? Let’s look at the

 4 Types of Evidence that scientists have

○ Age: This gives information on when the organisms

○ Types: This refers to the type of object that is

Age: Relative Dating

Certain rock layers can serve as

Age: Absolute Dating

Absolute dating uses the half-life of decaying materials.

How can fossil age be determined?

The Fossil Record

The fossil record is made up of all the fossils ever

Why is the fossil record incomplete?

Extinction occurs when the last individual

Structures and Evolution

● There are relationships between the structures of

● The types of structures that provide evidence of

The human arms, whale flippers, and

● These structure roughly

Homologies and Evolution

Homologies and Evolution

● For example, limbs of tetrapods (amphibians, birds,

● Examples include insect

 Analogous structures are

Analogies and Evolution

● However,they can give a

The science of the development

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