Handbook of Remote Interpreting - SHIFT in Orality

Handbook of Remote Interpreting Edited by A. Amato, N. Spinolo, M.J. González Rodríguez SHIFT in Orality Erasmus+ Project Shaping the Interpreters of the Future and of Today 1 ERASMUS + KA2 STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP IN HIGHER EDUCATION Project n. 2015‐1‐IT02‐KA203‐014786 Project Coordinator: Prof. Félix San Vicente DOI: 10.6092/unibo/amsacta/5955 ISBN: 9788898010851 Cover photo credit: Photo by Daniel Falcão on Unsplash The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. 2 3 4 Table of contents Introduction....................................................................................................................................7 1. General Background .................................................................................................................. 11 1.1. Basic tenets and features characterising telephone‐ and video‐based remote communication in dialogue interpreting .......................................................................................... 12 Nicoletta Spinolo, Michela Bertozzi, Mariachiara Russo ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 1.2. Linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic features in remote interpreting .................................. 26 Emilia Iglesias Fernández, Juana Muñoz López ‐ University of Granada 1.3. Social, pragmatic and ethical implications of distance interpreting ..................................... 39 Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ university of Surrey 1.4. Settings and subject areas requiring remote interpreting.................................................... 47 Mariachiara Russo ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 1.5. Parties, factors and instrumentalities involved .................................................................... 53 Cabriel Cabrera Méndez ‐ Dualia SL, Enrico Capiozzo, Lisa Danese ‐ VEASYT Srl 2. Telephone interpreting ............................................................................................................. 65 2.1 Face‐to‐face vs telephone‐mediated communication – monolingual .................................. 66 María Jesús González Rodríguez ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 2.2. Traditional face‐to‐face vs telephone‐mediated communication – with an interpreter ..... 72 Nicoletta Spinolo ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 2.3 Challenges and Solutions: Some Paradigmatic Examples ..................................................... 79 Amalia A.M. Amato ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 3. Video‐mediated interpreting ................................................................................................... 103 3.1. Face‐to‐face vs. video‐mediated communication ‐ monolingual ....................................... 104 Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey 3.2. Traditional face‐to‐face vs. video‐mediated communication – with an interpreter .......... 112 Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey 3.3 Challenges and solutions .................................................................................................... 119 Elena Davitti, Sabine Braun ‐ University of Surrey 4. Basic requirements and prerequisites for successful communication with remote interpreting ................................................................................................................................ 137 María Jesús González Rodríguez ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 5 5. Teaching materials .................................................................................................................. 143 5.1 Preparatory exercises ......................................................................................................... 144 María Jesús González Rodríguez ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 5.2 Role‐play simulations .......................................................................................................... 150 Elena Davitti, Sabine Braun ‐ University of Surrey 6 Introduction Amalia Amato, Nicoletta Spinolo – University of Bologna, Forlì Campus In the last three to four decades the massive diffusion of information and communication technologies has made their price drop dramatically. Access to long‐distance real‐time audio and video communication which used to be limited to large and wealthy organizations ‐ such as governments or multinationals ‐ has become affordable for a large share of the world population. Advances in ICTs have made it possible to buy products, provide services, or even run a business from portable devices. Historically interpreting has been a communication “enabler”, allowing people with different languages and cultures to communicate. But, until recently, interpreters enabled communication in shared situations such as meetings and conferences or in a shared place such as an office, a hospital, a courtroom. As private citizens have increasingly gained access to ICTs, the demand for the provision of distance, fast and immediate services has boomed, and language services are no exception to the rule. Moreover, since most societies are becoming increasingly multilingual and multicultural, nowadays public and private service providers, companies and institutions have to deal with users/customers who do not necessarily speak their language. Distance interpreting offers a great opportunity to companies, institutions and organisations to deal with foreign language users/customers efficiently and at a lower cost. Another advantage offered by distance interpreting is the possibility to recruit interpreters virtually everywhere and for every language. Telephone and videoconference interpreting are therefore rapidly gaining ground in a variety of settings: healthcare, legal, business, administrative. The European Union recommends distance interpreting even in legal proceedings when language mediation is essential to guarantee the fundamental rights of citizens (Directive 64/2010).1 In the field of conference services there is a rapid growth of web‐based interpreting platforms allowing interpreters to work from a remote site and participants gathered in a conference room to listen to the interpreter on their mobile phones. Distance interpreting offers some advantages to interpreters too: the possibility to work from home, even from remote locations, and to avoid travelling long distances. But what about the quality and the success of mediated remote communication? Communicating (in a single language) at a distance (via telephone and videoconference) differs from face‐to‐face interaction in many aspects (Bercelli & Pallotti 2002; Thüne & Leonardi 2003; Federman 2006; Goodman 2003; Isaacs and Tang 1994). First of all, there is a lack of social “presence” in remote interactions which makes rapport building more difficult for speakers compared to face‐to‐face interactions (Ellis 2004; Ozolins 2011). Secondly, the lack of some communication components such as visual, tactile and kinetic (Poyatos 2002) can generate communicative “uncertainty” between participants. Some scholars (Oviatt & Cohen 1992; Ozolins 2011; Braun 2015) noticed in their studies that speakers in remote interactions tend to rephrase or repeat their utterances because they do not feel sure they have made themselves understood since they have no or only partial access to feedback from other speakers’ gestures or face expression. And last but not least there can be difficulties in communication due to poor sound quality (Ellis 2004; Causo 2012). The inherent differences between face‐to‐face and remote communication mentioned above also apply to distance interpreting and interpreters seem to be the most disadvantaged party in a remote interaction. On the phone, they have no access to contextual information or any other input except for what they hear, and in videoconference they only have a partial view of the participants or the setting, and this generates fatigue as the interaction goes on (Andres & Falk 2009; Braun 2015). Art. (28) When using videoconferencing for the purpose of remote interpretation, the competent authorities should be able to rely on the tools that are being developed in the context of European e‐Justice (e.g. information on courts with videoconferencing equipment or manuals). 1 7 Secondly, it is difficult for speakers who do not see each other or have just a partial view to organize turn taking and this generates for the interpreter and additional need to coordinate turn‐taking (Oviatt & Cohen 1992; Wadensjö 1999). The communicative “uncertainty” mentioned above was found to have an impact on interpreters too who tend to “do more” than interpreting to ensure successful communication (Oviatt & Cohen 1992; Ozolins 2011; Braun 2015). Another challenge for interpreters is that there is a huge variety of topics that can be at issue in a telephone or videoconference call and it is impossible to predict what the object of the call will be: this means that often interpreters cannot prepare for a specific telephone or video call they have to interpret (Rosenberg 2007). Finally, poor sound quality is particularly frustrating for interpreters who are supposed to facilitate communication between people who do not share the same language and culture only on the basis of what they can hear. Yet, despite all the shortcomings mentioned above, most studies agree that with well‐functioning equipment, good preparation and a high level of experience of interpreters and other participants most of the disadvantages mentioned above can be managed and overcome (Andres & Falk 2009; Braun 2012). This is why trainee interpreters and professional interpreters who are willing to start working remotely would benefit from specific training. This is the goal of the SHIFT in Orality Erasmus+ project (www.shiftinorality.eu), whose aim is developing a comprehensive solution for training in remote interpreting in Higher Education and Lifelong Learning through the cooperation of a European network of universities (University of Bologna, University of Granada, University of Surrey, Pablo de Olavide University) offering interpreting programmes and remote interpreting service providers (Dualia SL and VEASYT Srl). This Handbook is part of the teaching materials developed within the project and has been designed for study and self‐directed study. It aims at providing a theoretical framework as well as practical tips to professional interpreters or interpreting students who are willing to start working remotely. Section 1 of the Handbook presents the theoretical background needed to understand the mechanisms and specific features of remote interpreting (both telephone and videoconference), with a focus on the basic features of remotely interpreted communication, on the importance of linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic elements, on social, pragmatic and ethical implications, on the settings and subject areas in which remote interpreting is mostly used and on the parties, factors and instrumentalities involved. Sections 2 and 3 focus on telephone and videoconference interpreting, respectively. They both highlight the difference between face‐to‐face and telephone/video monolingual interactions and between face‐to‐face and telephone/video interpreter‐mediated interactions. They then present potential problems that may arise in telephone/video interpreted interactions and possible solutions based on examples drawn from a set of research data. Section 4 summarises the basic requirements and prerequisites for successful communication using remote interpreting. Section 5 illustrates the teaching materials specifically designed for telephone and videoconference interpreting and provides indications about how to use them. 8 References Andres, Dörte; Falk, Stephanie (2009): “Remote and Telephone Interpreting”, D. Andres; S. Pöllabauer (eds.), Spürst Du wie der Bauch rauf runter/ Is everything all topsy turvy in your tummy? Fachdolmetschen im Gesundheitsbereich/Health Care Interpreting. München: Martin Meidenbauer, 9‐ 27. Braun, Sabine (2015): “Remote Interpreting”, H. Mikkelson; R. Jourdenais (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. Braun, Sabine; Taylor, Judith (eds.) (2012): Videoconference and remote interpreting in criminal proceedings. Antwerp: Intersentia. Bercelli, Fabrizio; Pallotti, Gabriele (2002): "Conversazioni telefoniche", C. Bazzanella (ed.), Sul dialogo: contesti e forme di interazione verbale. Milano: Guerini studio, 177‐192. Causo, José Esteban (2011): “Conference interpreting with information and communication technologies – experiences from the European Commission DG Interpretation”, S. Braun; J. L. Taylor (eds.), Videoconference and remote interpreting in criminal proceedings. Guildford: University of Surrey, 199‐203. Ellis, S. Ronald (2004): Report to the Immigration and Refugee Board Audit and Evaluation Committee, Immigration and Refugee Board Response to the Report on Videoconferencing in Refugee Hearings. http://www.irbcisr.gc.ca/Eng/transp/ReviewEval/Pages/Video.aspx] Federman, Mark (2006): “On the Media Effects of Immigration and Refugee Board Hearings via Videoconference”, Journal of Refugee Studies, 19, 4, 433‐452. Goodman, Joseph W. (2003): “The pros and cons of online dispute resolution: An assessment of cybermediation”, Duke Law and Technology Review, 2, 1, 1‐6. Isaacs, Ellen; Tang, John (1994): “What video can and cannot do for collaboration: a case study”, Multimedia Systems, 2, 63‐73. Oviatt, Sharon; Cohen, Philip R. (1992): “Spoken language in interpreted telephone dialogues”, Computer Speech and Language, 6, 3, 277‐302. Ozolins, Udis (2011): “Telephone interpreting: Understanding practice and identifying research needs”, Translation & Interpreting, 3, 1, 33‐47. Poyatos, Fernando (2002): “Nonverbal communication in simultaneous and consecutive interpretation”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds.), The interpreting studies Reader. London/New York: Routledge, 235‐252. Rosenberg, Brett A. (2007): “A data driven analysis of telephone interpreting”, C. Wadensjö; B. Englund Dimitrova; A. L. Nilsson (eds.), The Critical Link 4: Professionalisation of interpreting in the community. Selected papers from the 4th International Conference on Interpreting in Legal, Health and Social Service Settings, Stockholm, Sweden, 20‐23 May 2004 (Vol. 70). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 65–76. Thüne, Eva‐Maria; Leonardi, Simona (Eds.) (2003): Telefonare in diverse lingue: organizzazione sequenziale, routine e rituali in telefonate di servizio, di emergenza e fatiche. Milano: Franco Angeli. Varcasia, Cecilia (2013): Business and service telephone conversations: An investigation of British English, German and Italian encounters. New York: Macmillan Palgrave. 9 Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone Interpreting and the Synchronization of Talk in Social Interaction”, The Translator, Special Issue. Dialogue Interpreting, 5, 2, 247‐264. https://www.stjerome.co.uk/tsa/abstract/121/Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction] 10 1 General Background 11 1.1. Basic tenets and features characterising telephone‐ and video‐based remote communication in dialogue interpreting Nicoletta Spinolo, Michela Bertozzi, Mariachiara Russo – University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 1.1.1. Introduction The goal of this chapter is to help would‐be remote interpreters to get familiar with pragmalinguistic and interpreting concepts that are key prerequisites for successful interpreter‐mediated remote dialogues. The following concepts will be introduced: characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of remote interpreting (RI) vs. face‐to‐face interpreting (§ 1.1.2), impact of space allocation on RI (§ 1.1.3), structure and dynamics of human verbal interactions with particular reference to remote interpreter‐mediated service interactions (§ 1.1.4, 1.1.5, 1.1.6), nature and contribution of von‐verbal communication (§ 1.1.7) and paralinguistic features in human interactions (§ 1.1.8), note‐taking and memorisation techniques specific to RI (§ 1.1.9) and, finally, some concluding remarks concerning the impact of RI on the quality of the service provided (§ 1.1.10). 1.1.2. Remote interpreting Remote interpreting is rapidly gaining ground in the interpreting market in a growing number of countries where it was not used before (see § 1.4) as a consequence of the relentless progress in communication technologies on the one hand and, on the other, of the need to manage communication in increasingly multicultural and multilingual societies. Companies and institutions need to communicate with non‐native speakers who live in or travel to their country; and at the same time they want to reduce costs. The focus of this Handbook is on remote dialogue interpreting, which includes two main modes: telephone‐mediated and video‐mediated interpreting. Telephone interpreting is the “oldest” remote interpreting mode (the first public telephone interpreting service started in Australia in 1973) and is still in use, serving a wide range of markets and specific fields (see § 1.4), while videoconference interpreting only entered the scene more recently. Telephone and video interpreting offer many advantages (see Amato 2017). The first that springs to mind is ease of access: interpreting services become more accessible in terms of space, time and possible language combinations. Let us think, for example, of a late‐night health emergency: it is much easier and faster to find an interpreter on the phone or on a video call than to have him/her get to the hospital or the emergency site. Furthermore, remote interpreting reduces travelling costs for interpreters and primary participants (the expression primary participants is used to refer to the parties in the interaction who do not share the same language and can communicate only through an interpreter), thus contributing to cutting costs. Remote interpreting offers major benefits to users and interpreters, too: it can help protect their privacy (think of an obstetrician‐gynaecologist’s practice) and/or safety (for example, in emergencies such as natural disasters or accidents). Interpreters, in particular, enjoy the additional advantage of accessing a larger and potentially global market, with more flexible working hours and the possibility of working from home even if they live in remote areas. Remote interpreting, however, also involves additional difficulties (or, rather, peculiarities) as compared to face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting. It is important for remote interpreters to be aware of such peculiarities in order to develop adequate managing and coping strategies to overcome them. As Amato (2017: 54) sums up quoting several authors, remoteness has an influence on the features of interaction for all participants: 12 ‐ ‐ ‐ The lack of social presence in remote interaction makes it more difficult for participants to build a rapport (that is, a relationship based on communication), as compared to face‐to‐face interactions; The lack of some components of communication, such as some visual, tactile and kinetic clues, generates a certain degree of uncertainty between participants, who may tend to rephrase or repeat what they say, since, due to the lack of such clues, they are not always sure that their recipients are understanding them; Finally, difficulties in communication can be generated by technical problems, such as poor audio quality, connection problems, line being cut off, etc. The first and most obvious difference vs. face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting is the lack of visual input, which is total in telephone interpreting and partial in videoconference interpreting, since the camera only shows a portion of the speaker(s) and of the venue. In addition, the dialogue interpreter’s role as coordinator and gatekeeper2 of the interaction (Wadensjö 2002 1993]) is made more complex by remoteness and (partial) lack of visual input and output. Therefore, specific strategies will be needed to manage conversation remotely (see § 1.1.6). Furthermore, since remote interpreting relies on technology, interaction can be sometimes hampered, interrupted and/or made more complex by technical problems that might occur, such as a bad line on the phone (§ 2.3.3) and poor Internet connection. Finally, the advantage of remote interpreting of being time‐ and space‐flexible can lead to the interpreters often having to begin work at very short notice. Precisely because of the peculiarities and differences of remote dialogue interpreting as compared to face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting, interpreters willing to work remotely will need specific training and preparation for these interpreting modes. 1.1.3. Shared space and virtual space: possible constellations There are three main constellations (i.e. space distribution patterns of participants) during a remotely‐ interpreted interaction). Figure 1. Constellation 1. All primary participants and the interpreter are located in different places As Wadensjö (2002 1993]) explains, a dialogue interpreter’s role is not only that of a relayer, reporting the message from one party to the other, but also that of gatekeeper or coordinator of the interaction, contributing, together with speakers, to the management of turns and of communication. The expression gatekeeper is also used in the literature to describe the action of giving or denying access to the floor or to information content, as performed by interpreters (Davidson 2000). 2 13 Figure 1 illustrates a first possible constellation, in which the interpreter (position 1) and the primary participants (positions 2 and 3) are all located in different places. An example of this situation might be a doctor calling a patient for a follow‐up telephone or video call, with the interpreter working from his/her home or office. Ideally, the call should be on a single line, so all participants should be able to hear each other. Figure 2. Constellations 2 and 3. The interpreter is located with one of the primary participants or the primary participants are co‐located Figure 2 illustrates two other possible constellations. In the first case (constellation 2), the interpreter is located with one of the primary participants (positions 1 and 2), while the other primary participant is located remotely (position 3). Finally, in the third possible constellation, primary participants (positions 1 and 2) share the same space, while the interpreter is located remotely (position 3). For the sake of simplification, Figures 1 and 2 only present cases in which the interaction occurs between two primary participants; however, there may be more than two participants. Let us take the example in constellation 1: a video‐call between a lawyer and his client, with the interpreter located remotely. The lawyer might be with an assistant, or a colleague. In such a case, we would have two primary participants located in one site (lawyer+assistant), and another one (client) located remotely. 1.1.4. Structure of an interaction Although the specific features of telephone and video‐mediated interpreted interactions will be explained in detail in chapters 2 and 3, we shall provide here a basic introduction to the structure of an interaction, including the role of the remote interpreter. Communication in any context mostly takes place through conversation, as Heritage explains: “the social world is a pervasively conversational one in which an overwhelming proportion of the world’s business is conducted through the medium of spoken interaction” (Heritage 1984: 239; see also Amato 2012). In this section, we will present some fundamental concepts regarding the main components, the bricks that build verbal communication (§ 1.1.5), and how they interact with each other (§ 1.1.6). Conversation can be divided into three main parts: opening, body of the interaction and closing (Schegloff & Sacks 1973). ‐ Opening: a conversation can be opened through various linguistic and communicative resources, such as greetings, questions (How are you? How can I help you?), or with more explicit opening utterances/turns (I need to talk to you). 14 ‐ ‐ Body of the interaction: participants need to cooperate for this part of the interaction to be successful. They must agree on topic, tone, roles (and on variations to them); and must make the effort to be as clear as possible. Closing: this part usually includes four stages: 1) closing offering 2) acceptance of offering; 3) goodbye; 4) goodbye and closing. Conversational turns in phases 1 and 2 usually contain elements such as OK or well… while phases 3 and 4 usually contain typical farewell formulas such as goodbye, bye‐bye, etc. In this Handbook, we will focus on service calls (i.e. calls with institutions or private services), as remote interpreting services are usually not required for informal calls with acquaintances, friends and/or relatives. Service telephone or videoconferencing calls are usually made up of 5 parts (see SHIFT Report 13 for further details): ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Opening (synthetic, usually with no greeting – or at any rate not extended greeting − and how‐ are‐you phases; Schegloff 1986) Reason for call described by the caller Collection of information by the operator, usually based on a few question/answer turns Reply to caller’s request Closing In all these phases, the interpreter plays a major role in managing and coordinating the interaction, as s/he confirms openings and closings with both parties and often manages question/answer sequences. 1.1.5. Basic components of conversation Conversation is a primary activity in human communication. According to Levinson (1983), it is the prototypical way of using language. The first and fundamental feature of a conversation is the fact that it is usually organized and not chaotic, for three main reasons: (1) there are some types of recurring sequences; (2) people, events and groups employ recognisable interaction schemes and (3) people and groups bring to conversations expectations and resources that contribute to the order of conversation itself (Zorzi 1990: 1). Conversation Analysis, a research paradigm developed by Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson (1974), aims at analysing real conversations and detecting the main structures of the interaction, by describing the competences and resources used by speakers when they are involved in social interaction. Conversation analysts detected and mainly studied the following basic elements in an interaction: ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Organisation of conversational turns (turn‐taking) Organisation of sequences (that is, the order of actions in conversation) The concept of preference The concept of repair. Remote interpreters should know and be aware of the existence of such features for two main reasons: in the first place, because if the interpreter is aware of the main elements of an oral interaction it is more likely that s/he will be able to predict or understand and decode conversational behaviours; and, secondly, because the interpreter’s role and behaviour during an interaction can have an impact on all these aspects. 3 https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources/2017/01/23/report‐1‐characteristic‐features‐remote‐discourse 15 1.1.6. Dynamics of conversation Knowing the basic features that regulate conversations can boost dialogue interpreters’ confidence during their service, and even more so in the case of remote dialogue interpreters, because they can better respond to and anticipate communicative exchanges. In the next few paragraphs, we will provide a brief overview of the dynamics and main features of conversation: turn‐taking (§ 1.1.6.1), adjacency pairs (§ 1.1.6.2), overlapping speech (§ 1.1.6.3) and repair strategies (§ 1.1.6.4). 1.1.6.1. Turn‐ taking In conversation, turn‐taking is usually carried out smoothly, with no excessive overlaps and/or long pauses. According to Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson (1974), turn‐taking usually happens in a moment they define as transition‐relevance place (TRP). A TRP is a moment in the conversation in which participants understand that a turn has been closed. TRPs are identified by speakers through various clues: ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Syntactic clues (a sentence is complete) Lexical clues (presence of tags such as and that’s it) Prosodic clues (falling intonation, pause) Embodied clues (gestures, movements) Direct reference to another participant (What’s your opinion about this?) Transition from one turn to another is negotiated by participants in the conversation, and it can happen in three possible ways: ‐ The next speaker is selected by the current speaker e.g. What do you think, Alex? ‐ One of the speakers self‐selects him/herself by starting to speak e.g. a: I’m not sure what to say about this. b: Well, I believe… ‐ If nobody takes the turn, the current speaker keeps speaking e.g. a: I’m not sure what to say about this. Well, maybe… Turn‐taking in remote interpreting differs from that of monolingual conversation in many respects. Although the conversational exchange between primary participants is a spontaneous one, the interpreter’s presence as a third party marks the rhythm and order of turn‐taking in various ways. As already explained in paragraph 1.1.1, a dialogue interpreter's role in a conversation is not only that of a relayer conveying the information in two different languages, from one party to the other; a dialogue interpreter is also a coordinator or gatekeeper and effectively contributes to turn‐taking mechanisms both implicitly (marking turns through the mere rendition of one turn and then the other, as turns contain indications on who should speak next) and explicitly, by actually intervening in the conversation through non‐renditions, that is by producing utterances that are not the rendition of a speaker’s turn. Merlini (2015) describes this as a “a meta‐communicative activity, whose aim is to resolve communication problems by, for instance, clarifying, expanding, repairing, questioning, or formulating understanding of the meaning of conversational actions”. A remote dialogue interpreter’s coordinating and gatekeeping role is made more complex by the complete (for telephone) or partial (for videoconference) lack of visual clues and, in some cases, by the fact that remote conversation relies on technology, which can sometimes imply technical issues such as delays, transmission and connection problems. Finally, and especially in the case of three‐point calls/videoconferences, in 16 which neither the participants nor the interpreter share the same space, turn‐taking and management is already complicated for the two primary participants, who cannot see each other or see each other only partially; this makes the interpreter’s role essential in coordinating the communicative exchange. As we will see in chapters 2 and 3, it is often the remote interpreters who mark the tempo of turn‐ taking, either by selecting the following speaker through their renditions or by explicitly putting one of the speakers on hold and asking them to wait while they deliver their rendition. Turns in remote dialogue interpreting can also be managed through various conversational strategies, which have been analysed by the SHIFT research group on a set of data provided by the two remote interpreting companies that are partners of the project and are summed up below (see also Braun & Davitti 2017b): ‐ ‐ ‐ Chunking: remote dialogue interpreters may use verbal (e.g. excuse me…) and embodied (e.g. raising a hand, or a finger, especially in videoconference) resources for chunking long or particularly dense turns. Or, on the other hand, they may decide not to resort to chunking to avoid speaker’s turn disruption. Latching/short overlap: if they do resort to chunking, they may need to use latching or short overlaps with primary participants to continue their turn and complete the information. Handling of dyadic sequences: dialogue interpreting frequently includes dyadic sequences in which the interpreter exchanges a series of turns with one of the primary participants. Such sequences may be necessary, for instance, to complete information or to ask for clarification, and can be initiated either by the interpreter or by one of the participants. Remote interpreters should be able to manage such sequences ensuring that participants do not feel excluded (e.g. please hold on a second while I interpret this for the other party) and then regaining the “excluded party’s” attention after a dyadic sequence. 1.1.6.2. Adjacency pairs and preference In many cases, not only does turn structure allow predicting who is going to speak next, but also what kind of turn will follow. This is the case with adjacency pairs (Schegloff 1968). Such turn pairs are subject to a relation of “conditional relevance”, as the first part of the pair makes the second relevant. The second part is relevant not only because these pairs are usually composed of two parts, but also because when the second part is missing, its absence is justified by the speakers (cf. Gavioli 1999). Some examples of adjacency pairs are: ‐ greetings, after which we expect another greeting; e.g. a: Good morning! b: Hello! ‐ questions/answers e.g. a: Could you please send me a copy of the patient’s records? b: Sure, no problem. ‐ offerings/acceptance e.g. a: Would you be interested in receiving more information on our tourist card? b: Yes, thank you! ‐ apologies/minimization e.g. a: I’m so sorry for all the trouble I’m causing. b: Don’t worry, it’s no problem at all. 17 Some adjacency pairs have two possible answers: for instance, an offering or an invitation can have a positive or negative reply, or speakers can agree or not on a certain opinion. Acceptance and agreement are “preferred” replies, while rejection and disagreement are “dispreferred” (Levinson 1983). Although both alternatives are possible, participants do not treat them in the same way: while a preferred second part is usually pronounced immediately after the first, a dispreferred one is often preceded by hesitations, apologies or justifications from participants in the interaction (Pomerantz 1984; Briz 1998). Familiarity with the concept of adjacent pairs and preference, and the way they are dealt with by speakers, can be an important resource for interpreters in order to anticipate what is going to happen in the conversation. 1.1.6.3. Overlapping talk Turn‐taking is not always smooth and synchronised: it can sometimes be simultaneous. In the case of overlapping and simultaneous talk, participants in the interaction are somehow “fighting” to gain their turn. Most simultaneous attempts at turn‐taking do not become an actual turn in the conversation as they are often interrupted (Briz 1998). As the same author suggests, such interventions can have different functions: on the one hand, they can be a way to take the speaking turn, functioning as potential turn initiators, or they can be attention catchers; on the other, they can be used to express opinions on a speaker’s turn, or to correct, support, or confirm a previous utterance. According to various conversation analysts, and especially Jefferson (1983), overlapping talk often occurs at points corresponding to possible transition‐relevance places (see § 1.1.6). e.g. a: I’m not sure what to say about this. [Well, maybe…] b: [Well, I believe…] In remote communication, and hence in remote interpreting, overlapping talk may occur frequently, precisely because of the non‐presence of participants in the interaction: the fact that they do not share the same space can lead to misunderstandings as to when a turn has finished and as to who should take the following turn. A pause, for example, could be interpreted (or mis‐interpreted) as the end of a turn, or even as a technical problem. Also, a lack of turn organisation or a poor management of dyadic sequences may lead to confusion as to who is talking to whom and who should speak. 1.1.6.4. Repair strategies The concept of repair can be useful to understand many turn‐taking and overlapping speech mechanisms. Repair strategies are mechanisms through which speakers manage problems of speaking, listening and understanding. There are four types of repair mechanisms4: i) self‐initiated self‐repairs, ii) other‐initiated self‐repairs, iii) self‐initiated other‐repairs and iv) other‐initiated other‐ repairs5. Here are some examples: ‐ self‐initiated self‐repairs: the repair is initiated and carried out by the speaker who originated the problem: e.g. ‐ May I speak to Mr‐ ehm, Ms Rogers? other‐initiated self‐repairs: the repair is initiated by the recipient and carried out by the speaker who originated the problem: For further reading on repair strategies, see Schegloff, Jefferson & Sacks (1977), ‐the “founding fathers” of Conversation Analysis‐; Hutchby & Wooffitt (1998); Levinson (1983). 5 Most authors (Schegloff, Jefferson & Sacks 1977; Hutchby & Wooffitt 1998; Sidnell 2010 among others) observe in their studies a systematic preference for self‐repair in conversational mechanisms. 4 18 e.g. ‐ self‐initiated other‐repairs: the repair is initiated by the speaker originating the problem and continued by the other e.g. ‐ a: May I speak to Mr Rogers? b: Mr Rogers? a: I mean Ms Rogers. a: May I speak to Mr Rogers… ehm I mean… b: You mean Ms Rogers. a: Yes. other‐initiated other‐repairs: the recipient of the problematic turn initiated and completes the repair e.g. a: May I speak to Mr Rogers? b: You mean Ms Rogers. a: Yes. Recognising and using repair mechanisms in dialogues, as we will see in many of the examples presented throughout this volume, can prove useful to improve remote interpreters’ communicative skills. 1.1.7. Non‐verbal communication In remote interpreter‐mediated communication, some of the most important non‐verbal cues that participants are most familiar with can vary considerably from face‐to‐face interaction: in some cases, they might just be less effective due to the spatial, technical and sensory constraints that these channels inevitably bring with them, but they can also be completely different (Amato 2017) due to remoteness and (partial) lack of visual input (§ 1.1.2). While in face‐to‐face interpreter‐mediated interaction movements and gestures play a fundamental role as a sign of mutual respect and interest (Poyatos 2002; Tonin 2017) through gaze, posture or greetings, thus providing wider communicative resources both for primary participants and for the interpreter, in remote interpreter‐mediated communication these resources are not always available or are only partially available. These non‐verbal features may slow down the communicative exchange: let us think of the time needed, for example, to enter the room, take a seat, put down one’s personal belongings and so on, before the conversation actually begins. The lack of these elements makes remote communication a lot faster at the beginning or, at least, requires participants and interpreters to enter the interaction immediately, skipping this preliminary part, moving straight to the opening and starting with the initial greetings. Therefore, mutual identification cannot be negotiated in the same way as face‐to‐face interlocutors and interpreters do (§ 2.1.2). Moreover, since the interpreter must rely only on the vocal channel (or, at best, may only have a partial visual input), the interaction appears to be simplified, as Bercelli & Pallotti (2002: 181) state: 19 […] la restrizione delle risorse espressive alle sole risorse vocali semplifica drasticamente il gioco comunicazionale e lo linearizza, organizzandolo in sequenze meno variabili, meno articolate in flussi comunicativi paralleli6. We must not forget that a simultaneous access to multiple sensory inputs (visual, vocal, or even tactile and olfactory) provides the interpreter (and primary participants as well) with a very wide range of expressive resources that can positively contribute to a better understanding of the interlocutors’ role in the conversation and the relationships among them, as well as offer an insight into the setting, context, symmetries/asymmetries of power, or any other non‐verbal clue that might be missing or only partially available in remote interpreting. Non‐verbal communication is not just a qualifying element, it can even replace part of the conversation or serve multiple purposes at the same time (Poyatos 2002). Some scholars have related the issue of “social presence” and interpersonal behaviour to the absence of non‐verbal cues in remote interpreter‐mediated encounters: Heath & Luff (1991) talk about the “relative insensitivity” towards the other participants’ conduct due to the sometimes poor capacity of technological media to convey non‐verbal elements. Braun & Davitti (2017a: 165‐166), referring specifically to videoconference interpreting, postulate that: In addition to the problems with verbal communication, video‐mediated communication affects non‐verbal embodied communication. Most noticeably, videoconferencing systems do not normally support direct eye contact or mutual gaze and make it more difficult to detect and understand the remote participants’ head orientation and gestures, which play an important role in communication. Mukawa et al. (2005) and Bohannon et al. (2013), comparing videoconferencing systems supporting direct eye contact with different systems not providing this possibility, came to the conclusion that, in the first case, the participants’ communicative behaviour was similar to face‐to‐face interaction dynamics. Therefore, the use of remote (telephone or videoconferencing) systems necessarily entails a further challenge for the interpreter who needs to be well aware of the lack of familiar and irreplaceable resources, often taken for granted, such as direct eye contact, multiple sensory inputs, gesture, posture, kinetics, back‐channelling, latching and other non‐verbal cues. As Braun & Davitti (2017a: 166) concluded “[t]his in turn leads to a feeling of reduced presence. Overcoming this feeling, i.e. recreating a sense of togetherness, is likely to require more cognitive effort than face‐to‐face communication”. 1.1.8. Paralinguistics Paralinguistics involves a particular system of non‐verbal elements characterising the way the message is produced, such as prosody and voice‐related items, rhythm, intonation, pitch, volume and mimics (see § 1.2). As postulated by Poyatos (2002: 242), these elements always have a communicative value, regardless of whether they are conscious or unconscious: The conscious or unconscious psycho‐muscularly based body movements and intervening or resulting positions, either learned or somatogenic, of visual, visual‐audible, and tactile or kinesthetic perception, which, whether isolated or combined with the linguistic and Restricting expressive resources only to vocal ones dramatically simplifies the communicative exchange making it more linear, organizing it in less variable sequences and avoiding its division in parallel communicative flows [translation by the author]. 6 20 paralinguistic structures and with other somatic and objectual behavioral systems, possess intended or unintended communicative value. In telephone/videoconferencing interactions, interpreters only have limited access to these cues: at first glance, voice‐related items such as intonation, pitch or volume may seem to remain unchanged as compared to face‐to‐face to remote communication, but they can be very different: they can be distorted or partially modified by technical problems related to sound quality, poor internet connection, disturbed signal transmission or use of microphones, headsets and loudspeakers distorting the original sound. Among all of these non‐verbal components (§ 1.1.7), remote interaction only allows for a limited access to the linguistic and paralinguistic aspects of communication (Amato 2017: 146); this means that: I segnali non linguistici che potrebbero dare indicazioni sia sullo stato “mentale” (ad esempio accordo, disaccordo, dubbio) sia sullo stato emotivo dell’interlocutore (ad esempio contentezza, scontentezza, soddisfazione, insoddisfazione) non sono accessibili all’altro parlante. Il sistema linguistico, paralinguistico e cinesico costituiscono una struttura indissolubile che deve essere recepita dall‘interlocutore nella sua totalità per poter cogliere adeguatamente i messaggi durante lo scambio comunicativo7. Therefore, remote interpreters must be specifically trained and able to work without relying on the prototypical set of communicative resources (linguistic, paralinguistic, kinaesthetic and other non‐ verbal elements), and with more limited access to multi‐sensory inputs that are normally present in face‐to‐face interactions. 1.1.9. Note‐taking and memorisation techniques Among the many different abilities that a remote interpreter is expected to master, note‐taking and memorisation techniques are not less important. In this particular communication context, there is a further level of complexity that must be dealt with: the original message must move from one primary participant to the other, from an oral code to another through an intermediate written text (the interpreter’s notes) and, finally, it must travel through a remote channel (telephone or videoconferencing system). The differences with the traditional note‐taking and memorisation techniques that are normally taught in consecutive interpreting training courses are manifold. The first level of complexity affects the gap between traditional consecutive note‐taking and the specific needs of dialogue or community interpreting: Interpreting Studies literature has recently begun to focus more and more on this particular interpreting mode, which necessarily entails a new approach to note‐taking. One of the first studies investigating this issue (Schweda Nicholson 1990) reaffirms the primacy of memory over note‐taking in dialogue interpreting, which is usually characterised by short speaking turns and rapid turn shifts among primary speakers; notes, however, are essential to recall non‐contextualised unpredictable concepts such as figures, dates and proper names: therefore, even in a context where communicative exchanges and turns are quite short, a specific note‐taking technique must be activated. More recent studies (Tedeschi 2014) seem to prove that, in dialogue interpreting, non‐linear note‐taking techniques – including graphs, concept or mind Non‐linguistic features that may provide an indication both on the “mental” status (i.e., agreement, disagreement, doubt) and on the emotional status of the interlocutor (i.e., happiness, unhappiness, satisfaction, dissatisfaction) cannot be accessed by the other speaker. The linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic system represent a tightly‐knit structure that must be perceived as a whole by the interlocutor in order for him/her to be able to grasp the message correctly during the communicative exchange [translation by the author]. 7 21 maps, spider diagrams, symbols and keywords, as opposed to linear methods where the message is organised with the same syntactic structure as the original speech − can be more effec ve. This approach would appear to confirm that, in this interpreting mode, it is not always necessary to write down every single sentence (as in traditional consecutive interpreting), but rather a selection of unpredictable and difficult‐to‐memorise items (numbers, proper names, etc.), since speaking turns are usually short and the interpreter is normally asked to translate after each of these turns. A second level of complexity is given by the additional challenge of remoteness: as already shown, telephone or videoconferencing systems only allow for partial access to the multi‐sensory inputs that are normally present in face‐to‐face interaction; this aspect cannot but affect the way interpreters take notes as well. This particular field has not been thoroughly investigated yet, but references to/reports of professional experience seem to confirm that interpreters tend to rely strongly on memory and limit their notes to a set of challenging elements (figures, proper names, etc.). 1.1.10. Quality: some concluding remarks Having all the above‐mentioned conditions in mind, ensuring quality in remote interpreting is the object of ongoing heated debates and comparisons with face‐to‐face interactions. This prerequisite of a professional service can be considered from a double perspective: the quality of the service provided by the interpreter, where the focus is on the interpreter’s performance, on the one hand; and the quality of the service provided by the operators, where the focus is on the effectiveness of the medium in achieving the interlocutors’ goals. Limiting our concluding remarks to the dialogue interpreting settings, we can quote Wadensjö − one of the pioneers in investigating on‐site and telephone dialogue interpreting – who wrote, back in the late Nineties (1999: 3): It is evident from empirical studies (e.g. Wadensjö 1998), the outcome of interpreters work is dependent on the primary participants, on their mutual relations, on how they relate to the interpreter, and on their communicative style. Subsequent studies have also shown that despite the limitations and difficulties inherent in remote interpretation, well‐functioning equipment, adequate preparation and a high level of experience on the part of interpreters and other participants can minimise RI shortcomings and ensure high quality RI services (Andres & Falk 2009; Braun 2012). Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ What are the specific features of remotely interpreted interaction that make it different from traditional face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting? Why is it important for remote interpreters to be aware of such differences? What are the possible constellations in remote interpreting? What are the basic components of conversation? How is non‐verbal communication affected by remote interpreter‐mediated communication? Why is it important for remote interpreters to be able to use memorization and note‐taking? Recommended readings Hutchby, Ian; Wooffitt, Robert (1998): Conversation Analysis: Principles, Practices and Applications. Cambridge: Polity. 22 Merlini, Raffaella (2015): “Dialogue Interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London: Routledge, 102‐107. Poyatos, Fernando (2002): “Nonverbal communication in simultaneous and consecutive interpretation”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Schlesinger (eds.), The interpreting studies reader. London/New York: Routledge, 235‐252. Sacks, Harvey; Schegloff, Emanuel A.; Jefferson, Gail (1974): “A simplest systematics for the organization of turn‐taking in conversation”, Language, 50, 4, 696‐735. Wadensjö, Cecilia (2002 [1993]): “The double role of a dialogue interpreter”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Schlesinger (eds.), The Interpreting Studies Reader. Oxon: Routledge, 354‐370. 23 References Amato, Amalia (2012): L'interprete nel contesto medico. Bologna: CLUEB. Amato, Amalia (2017): “Telephone Interpreting for Health Care Service: Potential Problems and Solutions”, Vv.Aa., Report 2: Remote Technologized Interpreting (Telephone‐Based And Video‐Based Remote Interpreting): Main Features And Shifts With On‐Site Bilateral Interpreting, 52‐85. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Bercelli, Fabrizio; Pallotti, Gabriele (2002): "Conversazioni telefoniche", C. Bazzanella (ed.), Sul dialogo: contesti e forme di interazione verbale. Milano: Guerini studio, 177‐192. Bohannon, Leanne S. et al. (2013): “Eye contact and video‐mediated communication: A review”. Displays, 34 (2), 177‐185. Braun, Sabine (2015): “Remote Interpreting”, H. Mikkelson; R. Jourdenais (Eds.) (2015): Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. Braun, Sabine; Davitti, Elena (2017a): “Video‐mediated communication”, Vv.Aa., Report 1: Characteristic Features Of Remote Discourse, 150‐167. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Braun, Sabine; Davitti, Elena (2017b): “A Methodological Framework for the Study of Remote Interpreting”, Vv.Aa., Report 2: Remote Technologized Interpreting (Telephone‐Based And Video‐ Based Remote Interpreting): Main Features And Shifts With On‐Site Bilateral Interpreting, 276‐314. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Briz, Antonio (1998): El español coloquial en la conversación. Barcelona: Ariel. Davidson, Brad (2000): “The interpreter as institutional gatekeeper: the social‐linguistic role of interpreters in Spanish‐English medical discourse”. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4/3, 379‐405. Jefferson, Gail (1983): “Two Explorations of the Organization of Overlapping Talk in Conversation”, Tilburg papers in language and literature, 28. Tilburg: Tilburg University, 1–28. Gavioli, Laura (1999): “Alcuni meccanismi di base nell’analisi della conversazione”, R. Galatolo; G. Pallotti (eds), La conversazione: un’introduzione allo studio dell’interazione verbale. Milano: Raffaello Cortina Editore, 43‐65. Heath, Christian; Luff, Paul (1991): “Disembodied conduct: Communication through video in a multi‐ media office environment”, Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI’91. New Orleans: Louisiana, 99‐103. Heritage, John (1984): Garfinkel and Ethnomethodology. Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Hutchby, Ian; Wooffitt, Robert (1998): Conversation Analysis: Principles, Practices and Applications. Cambridge: Polity. Levinson, Stephen C. (1983): Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Merlini, Raffaella (2015): “Dialogue Interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London: Routledge, 102‐107. Mukawa, Naoki et al. (2005): “What is connected by mutual gaze?: user's behavior in video‐mediated communication”, CHI '05 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA '05). New York: ACM, 1677‐1680. 24 Pomerantz, Anne (1984): “Agreeing and disagreeing with assessments: some features of preferred/dispreferred turn shapes”, J. M. Atkinson; J. Heritage (eds), Structures of social action: Studies in conversation analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge university press, 57‐101. Poyatos, Fernando (2002): “Nonverbal communication in simultaneous and consecutive interpretation”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Schlesinger (eds.), The interpreting studies reader. London/New York: Routledge, 235‐252. Sacks, Harvey; Schegloff, Emmanuel A.; Jefferson, Gail (1974): “A symplest systematics for the organization of turn‐taking in conversation”, Language, 50, 4, 696‐735 [trad. it. (2000) L‘organizzazione della presa del turno nella conversazione, G. Fele, P.P. Giglioli (eds), Linguaggio e contesto sociale. Bologna: il Mulino, 97‐131]. http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~julia/cs4706/Sacks_et_al_1974.pdf] Schegloff, Emanuel A. (1968): “Sequencing in conversational openings”. American Anthropologist, 70, 1075‐1095. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (1984): “On Some Questions and Ambiguities in Conversation”, J. M. Atkinson; J. Heritage (eds.), Structures of Social Action: Studies in Conversation Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 28‐52. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (1986): “The routine as achievement”, Human Studies, 9, 111‐151. Schegloff, Emanuel A.; Jefferson, Gail; Sacks, Harvey (1977): “The Preference for Self‐Correction in the Organization of Repair in Conversation”, Language, 53, 361‐382. Schegloff, Emanuel A.; Sacks, Harvey (1973): “Opening up closings”, Semiotica, 8, 289‐327. Schweda Nicholson, Nancy (1990): “Consecutive note‐taking for community interpretation”, D. Bowen; M. Bowen (eds.), Interpreting – Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Amsterdam: John Benjamins & SUNY (State University of New York), 136‐145. Sidnell, Jack (2010): Conversation Analysis: an introduction. London: Wiley‐Blackwell. Tonin, Raffaella (2017): “Telefonate di servizio, monolingue spagnolo e italiano”, Vv.Aa., Report 1: Characteristic Features Of Remote Discourse, 104‐118. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Tedeschi, Beatrice (2014): Note‐taking in consecutive interpretation. Unpublished dissertation, University of Bologna, Campus di Forlì, Forlì. Tusón Valls, Amparo (1997): Análisis de la conversación. Barcelona: Ariel. Vv.Aa. (2017): Report 1: Characteristic https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Features Of Remote Discourse. Vv.Aa. (2017): Report 2: Remote Technologized Interpreting (Telephone‐Based And Video‐Based Remote Interpreting): Main Features And Shifts With On‐Site Bilateral Interpreting. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Wadensjö, Cecilia (2002 [1993]): “The double role of a dialogue interpreter”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Schlesinger (eds), The Interpreting Studies Reader. Oxon: Routledge, 354‐370. Zorzi, Daniela (1990): Parlare insieme: la co‐produzione dell’ordine conversazionale in italiano e in inglese. Bologna: CLUEB. 25 1.2. Linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic features in remote interpreting Emilia Iglesias Fernández, Juana Muñoz López – University of Granada 1.2.1. Introduction As mentioned in § 1.1, telephone Interpreting (TI) is already a long established professional practice in countries like Australia and the United States, and it is set to “remain the most likely medium for remote spoken language interpreting” (Ozolins 2011), particularly as regards telemedicine and healthcare services in a number of countries, such as Italy and Spain, where TI is gaining momentum (§ 1.4.3, 1.4.4, 1.5). TI environments present their own challenges (Oviatt & Cohen 1992; Rosenberg 2007), and they contribute to the production of a particular type of remote dialogue. To gain a deeper insight into remote interpreting it is necessary to analyse how the different communication layers − linguis c, paralinguistic and non‐verbal − impact the professional prac ce. This chapter a empts to present some challenges and good practices with regard to these layers in TI and video‐based remote interpreting (VRI). They occur together and impinge on each other, the paralinguistic and non‐verbal dimensions greatly enhancing the flow of turns. 1.2.2. The role of vocal and non‐verbal features in remote interpreting It has been observed that vocal features acquire an unparalleled importance in interpreting, and we argue that their role is even more essential in TI, where they provide decisive information. Research has shown that the non‐verbal dimension is as important as the verbal one in interpersonal communication. This is particularly true in the case of doctor‐patient communication, but also in legal settings (Berg‐Seligson 1988/2002). The same has been observed in this study. The user’s perception of the interpreters´ reliability relies very much on non‐verbal components. A smooth pace, an engaging voice, eye contact, smiling and nodding all signal a desire for involvement. Conversely, an irritating voice can weaken the perception of the message and its intent (Iglesias Fernández 2007). Similarly, a detached body position or an elusive gaze can undermine trust in the party´s involvement (Ekman & Friesen 1974). Remote interpreting also implies communication beyond words, displaying the repertoire of vocal and non‐verbal resources and cues in which the verbal exchanges are embedded. Consequently, these non‐verbal skills are crucial in the various settings where remote interpreting takes place. It is therefore evident that vocal and kinetic features, facial expression and gaze should be incorporated into remote interpreting training (§ 1.1.7, 1.1.8). Since interpretation is produced orally, the prosodic and non‐verbal features of the source message are equally important for TI recipients. And yet, although interpreting studies have highlighted the importance of the non‐verbal dimensions, these dimensions have not been fully explored in remote interpreting. Interaction on the phone consists of turn construction units of information produced by one interlocutor, and when they are about to be completed, they are perceived as a place where another participant can take the floor and are therefore followed by a turn by another participant or by silent gaps (Schegloff 2007). Throughout the interaction, lexical, syntactic and prosodic features (intonation, speech rate in TI and eye contact, facial expressions and gestures in VRI) are decisive for indicating speaker´s strategies such as turn continuity, turn completion, selection of next speaker, or self‐ selection of the participant holding the floor. Interpreters should be taught to identify rising and falling intonation in interlocutors’ voices and specific gestures and gaze because they can imply turn completion: a safe place to render the interpretation. The higher the trainee interpreter´s awareness of these prosodic and non‐verbal shifts, the less likelihood of overlapping talk, one of the major hurdles affecting the flow of talk in remote interpreting. 26 1.2.3. Remote interpreters´ speaking time Telephone interpreters´ speaking time One particular feature of TI is that interpreters have to deal with fast, time‐pressured, often emergency‐related interactions. Telephone interpreters are exposed to a high degree of emotional tension, as most of the calls are placed by highly‐strung clients (Iglesias Fernández & Ouellet 2018). Tension can also be triggered during the interpreter‐mediated call. This results in very long turns, hesitations, self‐repairs, latchings, overlaps and interruptions, which aggravate the task. In order to analyse this type of fast calls, we have selected a number of salient phonetic and prosodic features, namely: a) talking time; b) speech rate; c) elongations, d) micropauses and e) tokens. Out of the 22 TI interactions analysed, eight are presented here. Many calls shared similar features, which guided us in selecting the most representative calls. The calls in this chapter cover various situations: health emergencies, doctor‐patient interaction, health operator‐patient encounter, police and insurance company. In our data, telephone interpreters’ speaking time is twice as long when they engage with clients than when they engage with providers and/or operators. Interpreters have been found to act as co‐ principals (Wadensjö 1998), in that when clients do not provide appropriate or sufficient answers, the interpreters engage in additional, independent talk with the aim of retrieving the necessary information for the operator/provider, enabling him/her to provide the service. These initiatives take the form of additions, expansions, clarifications and repetitions. Additions by interpreters did not result in new information in our set of data, rather they signalled acknowledgment of information provided by other parties, checking proper names, etc. Interpreters are also active coordinators of the flow of talk, as remote interpreting companies allow them a great leeway in order to retrieve the necessary information to achieve communicative goals, but not necessarily to provide full satisfaction for clients. The following extract shows this active coordination of talk through linguistic and vocal signals. Example 1 27 The interpreter makes an extra effort to be understood by repeating almost verbatim the caller´s answer in order to acknowledge she received the information (turns 13 and 15). Additionally, she provides a positive assessment, which she places between two micropauses (“good” in turn 13). Positive assessments encourage the client to communicate and collaborate with the interpreter. The use of micropauses contributes to a more intelligible speech. Equally, vowel elongations make the speech sound more prominent. Video‐based remote interpreters´ speaking time The video‐based remote interpreting data set comprises six encounters. Regrettably, only four of the interpreted video interactions were suitable for study due to the poor acoustic quality of the recordings. The fields covered in the recordings are: business, legal, and one customer‐service encounter at a chemist’s. No health‐related video encounters could be studied; the interpreter´s voice or gestures were not of a quality suitable for acoustic measurement. Due to the smaller number of recordings of VRI, the findings in this section should be considered with caution. It is not unlikely that in many video‐based interpreted encounters, the interpreter has limited access to visual information on the parties. It is essential that the interpreter resort to vocal signals to make more sense of the interaction. As to the speaking time in VRI, interpreters´ speaking time was higher when addressing the client in English than when engaging with the operator in Italian, with the exception of one business interaction. 1.2.4. Remote interpreters´ speech rate Telephone interpreters´ speech rate A clear pattern emerged when Tis’ speech rate was analysed, in that the majority of the encounters were very fast. In all calls, interpreters talked at a slower pace with clients and at a much faster pace with providers and/or operators, but the overall rate was very fast. Some interpreters did reduce their speaking rate (syllables per minute), when talking to clients, but others did not. When scrutinizing the speech rate of interpreters, we identified a pattern. Interpreters increased their speech rate when faced with urgent, health‐ or police‐related calls. Conversely, their speech slowed down in non‐emergency calls. This type of fast, troublesome talk can be exemplified in the following excerpt. Example 2 28 29 The second interpreter’s (I2) speech rate is very fast, and he increases his pace when he puts questions to the client (line 33) and when he is clarifying technical medical terms (line 34 and 36). Instead of reducing his speech rate, he increases it to 311 s/m. The client finds it difficult to understand him, so a chain of questions occurs (lines 34 to 42). Once the name of the disease is uttered in line 41, the interpreter´s pace slows down. Two effective strategies that facilitate understanding have been observed in the previous interpreter’s (I1) prosodic behaviour (Example 1) and in the following excerpt (Example 3), performed by the same female interpreter. In a police interaction involving a missing person (see Examples 3 to 6), the overall speech rate is fast, but slightly slower than in Example 2. Interpreter I1 speaks faster to the provider than when she addresses the Romanian client. Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 30 In all the examples above, the interpreter (I1) systematically reduces her fast rate when she puts questions to the client. Not only does she manage speech rate variations effectively, but her tonal inflexion is very dynamic, placing stresses in salient information structures and raising her pitch range (intonation) at the end of each question. This results in a very orderly flow of talk. The listener expects a question after hearing a token and a recapitulation. Recapitulations here function as information acknowledgment tokens (see lines 20, 48, 46, 64, 66) to signal that the information was understood and received by the interpreter. Video‐based remote interpreters´ speech rate We have analysed four VRI encounters with the language combination English‐Italian, guided by the same set of variables used in the measurement in the TI data set (see § 1.2.3 and 1.2.4). Six VRI encounters were provided but only four of them were suitable for analysis and scrutiny due to poor sound quality. In all VRI interactions, the values for the variables are higher when VRI interpreters address the client than when they engage with the other primary party. In terms of speech rate, VRI interpreters address English speaking clients at a reduced pace, and talk is extremely fast when they talk to the Italian‐speaking service provider. In Example 7, the interpreter speaks more slowly to the client. This effort to make herself understood is also accompanied by elongations. 31 Example 7 A similar pattern of paralinguistic behaviour is performed by the same interpreter in Example 8. She slows her pace from 305 s/m to 220 s/m when introducing the first turn unit. A relevant feature is a dynamic style observed in the variations of speech rate according to the semantic prominence of the matter (four speed variations) and in the high number of elongations. Semantic salience is very high and is marked at key words pertaining to the matter at hand. These expressions are uttered with stressed syllables and marked intonation (see expressions in bold in turn 14 below). The speaking style is different when the VRI talks to the client: it is three times longer; she spends more energy in her paralinguistic behaviour by slowing her speech rate, pausing more and using more elongations. Acoustic measures show a higher intensity, a higher pitch and lively intonation. Example 8 1.2.5. Instances of tension and conflict in interpreter‐mediated telephone calls One particular feature of TI is that emotional tensions can be triggered during the exchange. Clients´ emotional distress (anxiety, impatience) usually leads to long turns, interruptions and overlapping talk, which make the role of the interpreter as a coordinator more difficult. In our data, a salient feature of interpreters’ behaviour reveals that emotional distress − as relayed by the clients´ prosodic and lexical resources − is not a component of the interpreter´s rendi on. The interpreter edits out this distress. In Example 9 the interpreter does not translate the client´s emotional state and frustration as overtly expressed in a cluster of linguistic and paralinguistic features (lines 33 and 35). Example 9 32 The interpreter’s paralinguistic behaviour is characterized by an extremely fast, edited translation of the message. This is shown in her speaking time, which is almost half the talking time she allocates to the provider. She speaks very fast to both parties, but slightly slower to the client. Her paralinguistic behaviour is very flat, with little speed variation and a very short pitch range, which makes her intonation sound very flat and unengaged. This interpreter (I3) seems to be primarily concerned with rendering factual data regarding the client´s disrepairs to the insurance company, leaving out his frustration and anger. Consequently, her 33 rendition is shorter and falls short of relaying non‐verbally all the signals of the caller’s frustration at the poor service. These signals are mainly displayed by intonation contours. This negative affect prosody could be relayed linguistically by a summary rendition such as: “the client is extremely frustrated. He points to mistakes being made” or similar expressions. We also observe the interpreter aligning herself to the dominant party (the insurance company operator) when she omits the client´s negative evaluation of affairs in line 35 (“they destroyed the side of the bath”), and uses an impersonal utterance in line 36 (“hay un lateral que falta” or “the side of the bath is missing”), which detaches responsibility from the insurance company. Diminished affect by the interpreter has also been observed in Example 2. Example 10 involves a follow‐up call by a doctor to her palliative‐care patient. The patient and her husband are an elderly couple. The lady patient is on palliative care and the doctor is checking on her. Example 10 34 In this instance of doctor‐patient communication, the interpreter (I3) does not translate the doctor’s lexical and paralinguistic affect display towards the dying patient in line 2 (“estamos siguiendo un sistema de seguimiento paliativo (.) para ver cómo se encuentra la señora” (“we are conducting a palliative‐care follow‐up call to see how your wife is feeling”). This utterance is translated in a much more concise and edited version in line 15 (“hi we’re calling from the hospital Sevilla to ask about your wife”). If we contrast the paralinguistic behaviour of both parties, doctor and interpreter, we can appreciate that the doctor uses 33 seconds to utter her message which contains 88 words, whereas the interpreter uses 10 seconds to utter 33 words. The doctor´s message involves both information and affect, but the interpreter’s rendering lacks the affect display of the source text. This can be observed in the number of times the doctor uses terms of endearment and respect to refer to the patient in line 2 (“señora” and “le vamos a preguntar por su:: señora esposa” (“to ask about your wife”), and further along in “para ver cómo se encuentra la señora” (“to see how she is feeling”). The doctor embeds much more affective information in a slower speech rate than the interpreter. The interpreter speaks at a higher speech rate to the elderly client, but she does not seem aware that she could reduce her pace to make herself more intelligible. Nor does she seem aware of the affect embedded in the doctor´s paralinguistic representation. The doctor’s speaking time is longer also due to a higher number of elongations such as “desde::” (from); “su::: señora” (“your wife”); “y:::” (“and”), and a higher number of information tokens, such as “mira” (listen), which together mark the beginning of a new utterance. The doctor´s affect display is recast in reduced renditions, that is, more compressed and edited translations with no affect prosody, and which focus on medical data. This practice contrasts with interpreter I1’s empathetic behaviour (see Examples 1 and 3 to 6). 35 1.2.6. Some concluding remarks about remote interpreters’ paralinguistic features Interpreters working on the phone do not seem to be aware of the enormous potential of the human voice and its paralinguistic resources, nor have they been informed of the negative effect of vocal behaviour when it expresses detachment and disaffiliation. Clients can easily be put off by the uninvolved tone of interpreters´ voices, or the high‐pitched voice of anxiety (Collados Aís 2002 [1998]; Collados Aís et al. 2007; Angelelli 2007: 75; Iglesias Fernández 2007). Interpreters have been found to focus on the fast retrieval of information required for the provision of the service to the detriment of intended affect expressed by the providers. Most of the time, the translated turns are more concise than the original ones as regards interpersonal information. This was observed in all interpreters’ renditions except for interpreter I1. One of the most salient paralinguistic features both in TI and VRI was the interpreter’s high speech rate. Although most interpreters slowed down when addressing the clients, their overall rate was still very high when they posed questions to the clients. High speech rate was particularly an issue at the opening, where interpreters´ names were uttered at such a speed that rendered them unintelligible. However, we have found an exception to the rule in the case of interpreter I1. Despite her fast speech rate, she made an effort to slow down her pace when she put questions to clients. She also highlighted the prominence of her utterances by pausing in strategic syntactic positions. This effect was enhanced by a higher number of elongations and information reception tokens. A close inspection of TI material reveals that participants are constrained in highly scripted patterns of turn taking, turn pre‐allocation and by protocols that limit the agenda of questions and answers, the time allocated to them and limit the likelihood of any emotion coming up in their interaction. This interpreting behaviour stands in stark contrast with the shared belief in the interpreting community that neutral interpreters are a myth (Wadensjö 1998; Davidson 2000; Angelelli 2004) and that interpreter’s invisibility is ideal. Interpreters adopt social identities which are relayed mostly by the form of the interaction (Drew & Heritage 1992: 95). The chain of questions and answers observed is a clear reflection of the asymmetry of relations. These strategies can be summarized as follows: a) to take on as many calls as possible, and b) to engage in fast, concise conversations where specific factual information is elicited at the expense of interpersonal interaction and rapport building. In a nutshell, the target goal is speed of service delivery and accuracy, but only at semantic level. 1.2.7. Discussion In spite of a slower pace by TIs and VRIs when they talk to clients, their speaking time is higher in the majority of instances. This involves a higher number of repetitions, additions and expanded renditions, many of which reflect an inefficient turn management. Speaking time more than doubled when interpreters were addressing their clients. A striking finding relates to the number of micropauses used by VRIs. Interpreters used a very high number of pauses when they interacted with the client. Micropauses were much more abundant in the health and administrative interactions, and less frequent in the business encounters. Another relevant finding concerns the interpersonal dimension of the interaction, namely in the form of elongations. Elongations are related to a more spontaneous conversational style of talk. They were found to be much higher in the interpreter‐client exchange in the administrative and health talks. Equally related to a more interpersonal and empathetic talk is the higher number of tokens, both information‐ and affect‐related. They were found to be higher in all interpreter‐mediated conversations except for the administrative call. Despite the lack of visual information in TI and the limitations that this mode of interpreting imposes, the interpreter should not lose sight of the fact that s/he can make effective and affective use of her/his tone of voice and features of intonation and tempo, since the voice is one of the most intuitive 36 channels for conveying intimacy, empathy or detachment. Remote interpreting can offer great communicative opportunities if a number of factors are controlled. Some of these factors belong to the non‐verbal and vocal dimension, alongside gaze, facial expression and body movements. Interpreters should pay particular attention to the role of voice and prosody in the organization of talk (Couper‐Kuhlen & Selting 1996), to the turn design selection which is marked by syntactic, lexical and prosodic indicators and to the structure of the service which is determined by the recipient’s goal to handle each call as routinely as possible. This can often imply alignment or non‐alignment (Zimmerman 1992) as we saw in the examples discussed above. Remote interpreters should be taught to: a) combine verbal and non‐verbal communication cues from the source language; b) reproduce them in appropriate combinations in the target language, and c) identify and exploit rhythm and tone patterns of the language as well as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and body position in order to maximize the efficiency and affect content of interpreting. For instance, generating trust and conveying affect alongside medical information is considered a prerequisite for interpreters who work in medical settings (Angelelli 2004), where they are perceived as more visible than in other professional environments. Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ In which settings are vocal, paralinguistic features paramount for a smooth and engaged interaction? What is the average speaking time in the interpreter‐client interaction in TI? What is the average speaking time in the interpreter‐client interaction in VRI? To which party does the interpreter speak longer and slower in TI? To which party does the interpreter speak shorter and faster in TI? To which party does the interpreter speak longer and slower in VRI? To which party does the interpreter speak shorter and faster in VRI? What are the vocal features of the interpreter´s empathetic behaviour in the TI encounter? What vocal and linguistic clusters contribute to a more coordinated and empathetic interaction in TI? Recommended readings Angelelli, Claudia (2004): Revisiting the Interpreter's Role. A Study of Conference, Court, and Medical Interpreters in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Amsterdam/New York: John Benjamins. Collados Aís, Ángela (1998 [2002]): “Quality assessment in simultaneous interpreting: The importance of nonverbal communication”, La evaluación de la calidad en interpretación simultánea. La importancia de la comunicación no verbal, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds.), The interpreting studies reader. London: Routledge, 327‐336. Iglesias Fernández, Emilia; Ouellet, Marc (2018): “From the phone to the classroom: Categories of problems for telephone interpreting training”, The Interpreters´ Newsletter (forthcoming). Wadensjö, Cecilia (1998): Interpreting as interaction. London/New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction”, The Translator, Special Issue. Dialogue Interpreting, 5 (2), 247‐264. https://www.stjerome.co.uk/tsa/abstract/121/Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction] 37 References Angelelli, Claudia (2004): Revisiting the Interpreter's Role. A Study of Conference, Court, and Medical Interpreters in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Amsterdam/New York: John Benjamins. Angelelli, Claudia (2007): “Assessing medical interpreters: The Language and Interpreting Testing Poject”, The Translator, 13 (1), 63‐82. Berk‐Seligson, Susan (2002 [1988]): “The impact of politeness in witness testimony: the influence of the court interpreter”, The importance of linguistics in court interpreting, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds), The Interpreting Studies Reader, London: Routledge, 278‐292. Collados Aís, Ángela (2002 [1998]): “Quality assessment in simultaneous interpreting: The importance of nonverbal communication”, La evaluación de la calidad en interpretación simultánea. La importancia de la comunicación no verbal, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds.), The interpreting studies reader. London: Routledge, 327‐336. Collados Aís, Ángela et al. (eds.) (2007): La evaluación de la calidad en interpretación simultánea: parámetros de incidencia. Granada: Comares. Couper‐Kuhlen, Elizabeth; Selting, Margret (1996): Prosody in conversation. Interactional studies (Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davidson, Brat (2000): “The interpreter as institutional gatekeeper: the social‐linguistic role of interpreters in Spanish‐English medical discourse”, Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4 (3), 379‐405. Drew, Paul; Heritage, John (eds.) (1992): Talk at work. Interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ekman, Paul; Friesen, Wallace V. (1974): “Detecting deception from the body or face”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 288‐298. Iglesias Fernández Emilia (2007): “La incidencia del parámetro agradabilidad de la voz”, A. Collados Aís et al. (eds.), La evaluación de la calidad en interpretación simultánea: parámetros de incidencia. Granada: Comares, 37‐51. Iglesias Fernández, Emilia; Ouellet, Marc (2018): “From the phone to the classroom: Categories of problems for telephone interpreting training”, The Interpreters´ Newsletter (forthcoming). Oviatt, Sharon; Cohen Philip K. (1992): “Spoken language in interpreted telephone dialogues”, Computer Speech and Language, 6/3, 277‐302. Ozolins, Uldis (2011): “Telephone interpreting: understanding practices and identifying research needs”, Translation & Interpreting, 3/1, 33‐47. Rosenberg, Brett Allen (2007): “A data driven analysis of telephone interpreting”, C. Wadensjö, B. Englund Dimitrova, A‐L. Nilsson (eds), The Critical Link 4. Professionalisation of Interpreting in the Community, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 65‐76. Schegloff, Emanuel A. (2007): Sequence organization in Interaction: A primer in Conversational Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1998): Interpreting as interaction. London/New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Zimmermann, Don H. (1992): “The interactional organization of calls for emergency assistance”, P. Drew, J. Heritage (eds.), Talk at work. Interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 418‐ 469. 38 1.3. Social, pragmatic and ethical implications of distance interpreting Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey 1.3.1. Introduction The evolution of communication technologies has created ample opportunities for distance communication in real time and has led to alternative ways for delivering interpreting services. On the one hand, mobile and internet telephony have made telephone communication more flexible, enabling conference calls with participants in two or more locations. On the other hand, videoconferencing has slowly established itself as a tool for verbal and visual interaction in real time, also between two or more sites (see § 1.4). Increasing global migration and mobility along with a stronger focus on language access have led to a growing demand for interpreting world‐wide. At the same time, budgetary constraints put financial pressure on public sector institutions and private business’ limiting their ability to hire qualified interpreters. Moreover, shortages of qualified interpreters covering the many language combinations required in public service settings mean that the linguistic demand can be difficult to meet in a timely and cost‐efficient manner, especially outside (‘super‐diverse’) metropolitan areas. Communication technologies have the potential to play an important role in overcoming language barriers. However, technology‐mediated interpreting is often perceived as a double‐edged sword. On the one hand, it clearly opens up new opportunities for meeting linguistic demand and increasing the efficiency of interpreting service provision (see § 1.5). On the other hand, the use of technology‐ mediated distance interpreting—as an alternative to in‐person onsite interpreting—raises questions about the quality of the interpretation; the training and skills required of interpreters and their clients; the interpreters’ working conditions; the clients’ perception of the interpreter; and ultimately the impact of the combination of technological and linguistic‐cultural mediation on the outcome of the communication (§ 2.1.4, 2.1.5). 1.3.2. Modalities of distance interpreting Two main uses of telephone and videoconference communication can be distinguished in connection with interpreting. One of these, remote interpreting (RI), refers to the use of communication technologies to gain access to an interpreter in another room, building, town, city or country. In this modality, a telephone line or videoconference link is used to connect the interpreter to the primary participants, who are together at one site. This is the modality on which the SHIFT project focuses. Remote interpreting via telephone is often simply called telephone interpreting or over‐the‐phone interpreting, although telephone‐based remote interpreting would be more a transparent term. Remote interpreting via video link is often called video remote interpreting. RI has been used in connection with simultaneous, consecutive and dialogue interpreting. A similar modality is required for interpreting in a telephone call or videoconference between parties at different sites who do not share the same language, i.e. for interpreter‐mediated telephone or videoconference communication, but in this modality, the interpreter is either co‐located with one of the parties or at a separate site (see also § 1.1 and 2.2). The latter configuration leads to a three‐way telephone or videoconference connection. A cover term for this modality of interpreting is teleconference interpreting, with telephone conference interpreting and videoconference interpreting as subcategories (Braun 2015). The above classification focuses on the distribution of the interpreter(s) in relation to the primary participants. A cross‐cutting classification arises when the different modalities are distinguished by 39 the technological basis or medium of communication they involve, leading to a distinction between telephone‐mediated interpreting and video‐mediated interpreting. To return to the difference between remote and teleconference interpreting, it should be noted that these modalities have different underlying motivations, i.e. the use of communication technology to link an interpreter with the primary participants vs. its use to link primary participants at different sites, and that they are not interchangeable. However, both modalities overlap to a certain extent, for example in three‐way telephone or videoconferences, which can be seen as a combination of remote and teleconference interpreting. Moreover, both share elements of remote working from the interpreter’s point of view. Both modalities will therefore be discussed in this chapter. 1.3.3. Evolution of distance interpreting Although Paneth noted in 1957—in what is probably the first reference to remote interpreting—that this was “a very neat and obvious use of interpreters” which “might easily be developed further” (Paneth 2002 1957]): 39), the actual development of remote and teleconference interpreting has sparked heated debate among practitioners and interpreting scholars and has raised questions of feasibility and working conditions; but the debate has also been linked to the efficiency of service provision and the sustainability of the interpreting profession. Whilst uptake in traditional conference interpreting has been relatively slow, there is a growing demand for remote and teleconference interpreting in legal, healthcare, business and educational settings, and both methods are used to deliver spoken and sign‐language interpreting alike. Research into distance interpreting has analysed the quality of the interpreter’s performance and a range of psychological and physiological factors associated with it ; the dynamics of participant interaction; and the strategies that interpreters develop in relation to the different modalities of distance interpreting. In addition, distance interpreting has been investigated in terms of efficiency gains and user satisfaction compared to onsite interpreting (Braun 2015). The first service for telephone‐mediated interpreting was established by the Australian immigration service in 1973. In the US and in most Western European countries, such services have been offered since the 1980s and 1990s respectively (Mikkelson 2003). Although some telephone‐mediated interpreting services are now being replaced by video‐mediated interpreting services, telephone‐ mediated interpreting is still a large market. With the spread of telephone‐mediated interpreting, the method has seen improvements in the technology used (e.g. dual‐headset phones for clients to listen to a remotely located interpreter). The development of video‐mediated interpreting was originally driven by the interest of supra‐ national institutions in distance interpreting as a means of optimising access to interpreters and meeting linguistic demand. The earliest experiment was organised by the UNESCO in 1976 to test the use of the Symphonie satellite. It linked the UNESCO headquarters in Paris with a conference centre in Nairobi and involved remote interpreting by telephone and video link, and interpreting in a videoconference between Paris and Nairobi. Similar experiments were organised by the UN later in the 1970s and 1980s (Viaggio 2011, Mouzourakis 1996). From the 1990s, a series of feasibility studies of video‐mediated remote interpreting (in simultaneous mode) was organised by various institutions, including the European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) in 1993 (Böcker & Anderson 1993), the European Commission in 1995, 1997 and 2000, the United Nations in 1999 and 2001, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) in collaboration with the École de Traduction et d’Interprétation (ETI) in 1999 (Moser‐Mercer 2003), the European Council in 2001, and the European Parliament in 2001 and 2004. The studies revealed a range of physiological and psychological problems which recurred in different technical conditions and which seemed to be caused by the overarching condition of remoteness (Mouzourakis 2006). 40 Whilst the feasibility studies cited above involved comparisons of real‐life or test performances in onsite and remote interpreting, a more recent study conducted by the Fraunhofer Institute for the Interpreting Service of the European Commission (SCIC) in 2010 aimed to define minimum standards for video and audio transmission in the context of remote simultaneous interpreting. This resulted in a comprehensive list of technological recommendations (Causo 2012). A major driving force of the spread of video‐mediated interpreting in legal settings was the increasing use of videoconference technology in the court systems of many Anglo‐Saxon countries since the 1990s, e.g. to link courts and prisons for pre‐trial hearings (Braun, Davitti & Dicerto 2018, Braun & Taylor 2012, Ellis 2004, Fowler 2013). This entailed a demand for videoconference interpreting whereby the interpreter is co‐located with one of the parties. Early videoconference systems, which were ISDN‐based, led to problems with sound and image quality for interpreters. More recent videoconferencing systems that use high‐speed Internet connections provide better audio and video quality and are more conducive to videoconference‐based interpreting (Braun & Taylor 2012). Video remote interpreting has been introduced more recently in courts and by the police mainly as a way of gaining timely access to interpreters and reducing interpreter travel time and cost (e.g. Florida district courts since 2007, the Metropolitan Police in London since 2011). The spread of videoconferencing has also promoted video‐mediated interpreting services in healthcare (Locatis et al. 2010, Price et al. 2012). At the time of writing healthcare providers mainly need remote interpreting, but developments in tele‐healthcare, whereby doctors make video calls to patients who are in their own home, are likely to create a more diversified demand for video‐mediated healthcare interpreting. At the same time, the availability of web‐ or cloud‐based video conference services providing varying and unstable sound and image quality, and access to them on tablets and other mobile devices, raise new questions about the feasibility of video‐mediated interpreting using such systems. 1.3.4. Implications of distance interpreting To date there is no consensus about the quality of interpreting that can be achieved in distance interpreting compared to the quality of traditional in‐person interpreting in comparable situations, and what exactly the relevant shaping forces are. The variation in settings, requirements for quality and research methods means that the findings from different fields of interpreting are currently difficult to compare. One of the most pressing questions for future research is to resolve apparent discrepancies in current research findings. Moser‐Mercer (2005) and Mouzourakis (2006) suggested that the condition of remoteness or the lack of ‘presence’ may be the most likely common denominator for the problems with remote interpreting. The concept of ‘presence’ and its effects are issues that will require a substantial amount of further research. Furthermore, Moser‐Mercer (2005) has raised questions about adaptation of different groups of interpreters to remote interpreting, arguing that experienced interpreters may find it more difficult to adapt to the conditions of remote interpreting because they rely on automated processes, whilst novice interpreters, especially when they are subjected to new methods of interpreting during their training, may have a greater potential for adaptation. Braun (2004, 2007) discusses adaptation and its limits in three‐way videoconferences. However, the interpreters who took part in experiments with remote conference interpreting were able to maintain their performance, although not for as long as in traditional interpreting (onset of fatigue). Roziner & Shlesinger (2010) argue the maintenance of the performance quality over at least a certain period of time comes at a price, i.e. that interpreters put more effort into the interpreting task and may suffer post‐work exhaustion. It is also worth pointing out that although some of the discrepancies between research findings from different contexts, especially in relation to interpreting quality, may be due to different research 41 designs and quality measures, the differences between findings relating to conference interpreting (little difference between onsite and remote interpreting; Roziner & Slesinger 2010) and legal interpreting (significant differences; Braun 2013) also give rise to questions about how education and training impact on the interpreters’ ability to adapt successfully to the challenges of distance interpreting (see § 2.3 and § 3.3). The issue of adaptation clearly also requires further investigation. A related consideration is how the physical separation and distribution of all participants and their perception of the situation via telephone lines and/or video screens affects aspects such as the processing of information, the communicative behaviour of the primary participants and the communicative dynamic. Moser‐Mercer (2005) outlines problems with multi‐sensory integration in videoconferences, which she believes prevent interpreters from processing the information and building mental representations of the situation in the usual way. Licoppe & Verdier (2014) suggest that distributed courtrooms change the dynamic of the communication and lead to fragmentation of the communication. The sources and implications of this kind of fragmentation are not very well understood (but see Licoppe, Verdier & Veyrier 2018) yet and warrant further study. Following the increase of videoconference interpreting in the legal sector, one of the questions arising in connection with the issue of fragmentation concerns the ‘best’ place for the interpreter. Comparing the options — i.e. interpreter co‐located with the judicial authorities vs. interpreter co‐located with the minority‐language speaker — Braun, Davitti & Dicerto (2018), Ellis (2004) and Miler‐Cassino & Rybinska (2012) highlight important differences between the two configurations, e.g. concerning the rapport between interpreter and minority‐language speaker. A further point concerns the relative difficulty of remote interpreting (i.e. interpreter completely separated from the main parties) and teleconference interpreting (interpreter co‐located with some participants). Remote interpreting is generally perceived to be more challenging. This view is also reflected in the guidance on the use of technologies in conference interpreting issued by the AIIC (2000/2012), which rejects remote interpreting whilst agreeing to teleconference interpreting (under specific circumstances). Similarly, questions arise with regard to visual information in the different modalities of distance interpreting and specially the suitability of telephone‐mediated interpreting. Kelly (2008) cites a number of advantages of telephone‐mediated interpreting, but Ozolins (2011) believes that her description mostly refers to the US, where the size of the market and the dominant role of Spanish have led to a level of sophistication in terms of technology use and logistics that is unlikely to be found in many other countries. This debate is also linked to the interpreters’ working conditions. Ko (2006) and Lee (2007), for example, argue that the generally high levels of dissatisfaction associated with telephone‐mediated interpreting partly stem from poor working conditions, including low remuneration, rather than from the use of the technology as such. There is also a debate as to whether distance interpreting, due to its potential challenges, should command higher fees than onsite interpreting. In relation to the issues outlined above it will be necessary to investigate the possible short‐term and long‐term effects of distance interpreting on the interpreters, on the success of the communicative event as a whole and on important societal issues such as the quality and fairness of justice or equal access to healthcare and other public services. Research needs to highlight the possible correlations between variables so as to show how the likely increase in distance interpreting, the ‘industrialisation’ of interpreters associated with this and the expectation that interpreters are available ‘at the push of a button’ impacts on the interpreters’ working conditions, their status and remuneration. It will also be necessary to highlight the potential links between this and interpreting quality. 42 Given the speed with which communication technologies develop and spread, the future is likely to bring an increase and diversification of distance interpreting. The latest developments which are likely to be relevant for distance interpreting fall into two categories, i.e. high‐end solutions such as videoconferencing systems (HD and 3D ‘tele‐presence’ or ‘immersive’ systems) and the merger of videoconferencing with 3D virtual reality technology to create ‘augmented reality’ communication solutions, and low‐end solutions such as web‐based videoconferencing services which were originally developed for the home market (e.g. Skype), and audio or video calls using mobile devices and apps. It will be important to investigate how the virtual spaces that these technologies create are able to support the development of ‘presence’ and the dynamic of the communication. Robust research methods are required to cover the potential impact of emerging technologies on interpreting. Legislative frameworks are likely to change and become more accommodating of distance interpreting. One recent example is the European Directive 2010/64/EU on the right to interpretation and translation in criminal proceedings, which highlights the need for quality in legal translation and interpreting in Europe and explicitly refers to the possibility of using communication technologies such as telephony and videoconference to gain access to an interpreter. Furthermore, the most recent ISO standards for interpreting have begun to account for the specific characteristics and requirements of distance interpreting. A crucial point for research and practice is collaboration. Assuming that technologies are here to stay and that it would be a mistake to dismiss them cursorily, given their advantages, it will be important that the main stakeholders, i.e. interpreter associations, interpreting service providers, users of interpreting services, representatives of client groups (especially in public service interpreting contexts) and researchers collaborate in the investigation and mitigation of the risks and challenges of distance interpreting and in designing, implementing and piloting appropriate solutions. Given the insights into adaptability and its limitations, training and education of interpreters and those who use their services is crucial. The extent of the training and education required is not yet clear, but recent research in a legal setting suggests that short‐term training may not be able to solve all problems (Braun 2016). European conference interpreter training courses, in collaboration with the interpreting services of the European Commission and the European Parliament, have used videoconferencing for simulations of interpreting for several years now (Virtual classes). Hlavac (2013) points to the need to train and test future interpreters in their knowledge about remote interpreting. The European project IVY (Interpreting in Virtual Reality, 2011‐13) and its follow‐up project EVIVA (2013‐15; www.virtual‐interpreting.net) have evaluated different technological solutions, including videoconferencing and 3D virtual worlds, for the simulation of interpreting practice to train interpreters and their clients. Chen & Ko (2010), as well as the European QUALITAS project (2012‐14; www.qualitas‐project.eu), which has developed certification procedures for legal interpreters, have explored possibilities for remote testing of interpreters. The European AVIDICUS projects (2008‐16; www.videoconference‐interpreting.net) have developed training modules for interpreting students, professional interpreters and clients of interpreters to train these groups in how to use video‐ mediated interpreting in legal settings. The SHIFT project is continuing this work for remote interpreting by extending the development of training resources to other settings in which remote interpreting is needed. 1.3.5. Conclusion Interpreting practice has changed tremendously over recent decades. The changes have been brought about by a combination of technological innovation and societal change, especially increased mobility and demand for interpreting in a globalised world. On the positive side, technological innovations have given interpreters more choices and opportunities to offer their services, network with colleagues etc. On the negative side, the introduction of technological tools has often been linked to a deterioration 43 of working conditions and remuneration. Thus, the spread of technology‐mediated distance interpreting goes hand in hand with the idea of interpreters being available “at the push of a button” and with an undue simplification of the complexity of interpreting. This is in stark contrast to the perception advocated by interpreters and researchers that the various modalities of technology‐mediated interpreting add a further layer of complexity to the interpreter’s task and to the communicative situation for all involved. A crucial prerequisite for the successful use of any form of distance interpreting is therefore that its implementation is supported by the best possible equipment and connection; that the planning of the implementation involves interpreters; and that the implementation is carried out in increments to allow mitigation of any problems arising. Given the many challenges of distance interpreting, interpreters and the users of interpreting services should be trained to work in situations where the need for distance interpreting arises. 44 References AIIC (2000): “Guidelines for the use of new technologies in conference interpreting”, Communicate!, March‐April 2000. http://www.aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm?page_id=120] Böcker, Martin; Anderson, Donald (1993): “Remote conference interpreting using ISDN videotelephony: a requirements analysis and feasibility study”, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, vol. 37, 3. Los Angeles CA: SAGE Publications, 235–239. Braun, Sabine (2004): Kommunikation unter widrigen Umständen? Fallstudien zu einsprachigen und gedolmetschten Videokonferenzen. Tübingen: Narr. Braun, Sabine (2007): “Interpreting in small‐group bilingual videoconferences: challenges and adaptation processes”, Interpreting, 9 (1), 21‐46. Braun, Sabine; Taylor, Judith (eds.) (2012): Videoconference and Remote Interpreting in Legal Proceedings. Cambridge/Antwerp: Intersentia. Braun, Sabine (2013): “Keep your distance? Remote interpreting in legal proceedings: A critical assessment of a growing practice”, Interpreting, 15 (2), 200‐228. Braun, Sabine (2015): “Remote Interpreting”, H. Mikkelson; R. Jourdenais (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. Braun, Sabine (2016): “The European AVIDICUS projects: Collaborating to assess the viability of video‐ mediated interpreting in legal proceedings”, European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1‐7. Braun, Sabine; Davitti, Elena; Dicerto, Sara (2018): “Video‐Mediated Interpreting in Legal Settings: Assessing the implementation”, J. Napier; R. Skinner; S. Braun (eds.) Here or There: Research on remote interpreting. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Causo, José Esteban (2012): “Conference interpreting with information and communication technologies. Experiences from the European Commission DG Interpretation”, S. Braun; J. Taylor (eds.), Videoconference and remote interpreting in criminal proceedings. Cambridge/Antwerp/Portland: Intersentia, 227‐232. Chen, Nian‐Shing; Ko, Leong (2010): “An online synchronous test for professional interpreters”, Education, Technology and Society, 13 (2), 153‐165. Ellis, S. Ronald (2004): Report to the Immigration and Refugee Board Audit and Evaluation Committee, Immigration and Refugee Board Response to the Report on Videoconferencing in Refugee Hearings. http://www.irbcisr.gc.ca/Eng/transp/ReviewEval/Pages/Video.aspx] Fowler, Yvonne (2013): “Non‐English‐speaking defendants in the magistrates court. A comparative study of face‐to‐face and prison video link interpreter‐mediated hearings in England”, PhD Thesis. Birmingham: Aston University. Hlavac, Jim (2013): “A cross‐national overview of translator and interpreter certification procedures”, Translation and Interpreting, 5 (1), 32‐65. Kelly, Nataly (2007): Telephone interpreting: a comprehensive guide to the profession. Bloomington: Trafford Publishing. Ko, Leong (2006): “The need for long‐term empirical studies in remote interpreting research: A case study of telephone interpreting”, Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series‐ Themes in Traslation Studies, 5, 325–338. Lee, Jieun ( 2007): “Telephone interpreting ‐ seen from the interpreters ’ perspective”, Interpreting, 2 (2), 231–252. 45 Licoppe, Christian; Verdier, Maud (2013): “Interpreting, video communication and the sequential reshaping of institutional talk in the bilingual and distributed courtroom”, International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 20, 247–276. Licoppe, Christian; Verdier, Maud; Veyrier, Clair‐Antoine (2018): “Voice, power and turn‐taking in multilingual, consecutively interpreted courtroom proceedings with video links”, J. Napier; R. Skinner; S. Braun (eds.), Here or there: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet, (forthcoming). Locatis, Craig et al. (2010): “Comparing in‐person, video, and telephonic medical interpretation”, Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25 (4), 345–350. Mikkelson, Holly (2003): “Telephone interpreting: Boon or bane?”, L. Pérez González (ed.), Speaking in tongues: language across contexts and users. Valencia: Universitat de València, 251‐269. Miler‐Cassino, Joanna; Rybińska, Zofia (2012): “AVIDICUS comparative studies – part III: Traditional interpreting and videoconference interpreting in prosecution interviews”, S. Braun; J. Taylor (eds.), AVIDICUS Report. Guildford: University of Surrey, 137‐158. Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2003): “Remote interpreting: assessment of human factors and performance parameters”, Communicate!, Summer 2003. http://aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm?page_id=1125] Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2005): “Remote interpreting: issues of multi‐sensory integration in a multilingual task”, Meta, 50 (2), 727‐738. Mouzourakis, Panayotis (1996): “Videoconferencing: techniques and challenges”, Interpreting, 1 (1), 21‐38. Mouzourakis, Panayotis (2006): “Remote interpreting: a technical perspective on recent experiments”, Interpreting, 8 (1), 45‐66. Ozolins, Uldis (2011): “Telephone interpreting: Understanding practice and identifying research needs”, Translation and Interpreting, 3 (1), 33‐47. Paneth, Eva (2002 1957]): “An investigation into conference interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds.), The Interpreting Studies reader. London: Routledge, 31‐41. Price, Erika Leemann et al. (2012): “Interpreter perspectives of inperson, telephonic, and videoconferencing medical interpretation in clinical encounters”, Patient Education and Counseling, 87 (2), 226–232. Roziner, Ilan; Shlesinger, Miriam (2010): “Much ado about something remote: Stress and performance in remote interpreting”, Interpreting, 12 (2), 214–247. Viaggio, Sergio (2011): Remote interpreting rides again. http://aiic.net/page/3710/remote‐ interpreting‐rides‐again/lang/1] 46 1.4. Settings and subject areas requiring remote interpreting Mariachiara Russo ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 1.4.1. Introduction Interpreters are engaged in a variety of communicative settings that have been amply described and analysed by Interpreting Studies scholars (see Pöchhacker 2016 [2004] for an overview). In traditional interpreter‐mediated events, participants and interpreters are gathered in the same space, at the same time. For instance, in a conference setting, simultaneous and consecutive interpreters are typically located in the same conference hall as their clients (speakers and audience), thus enjoying the best possible conditions of a shared framework in which to process their clients’ communicative needs and goals, benefit from visual feedback and avoid conveying source speech (SS) information which can be inferred by the context. This helps them dispel SS semantic ambiguities and produce target speeches that are linguistically and pragmatically adequate. Technological advances have made communication more flexible and “incorporeal”, in other words communicative exchanges travel nowadays through channels that do not necessarily imply the physical on‐site presence of all the parties involved in an interpreter‐mediated event (see § 1.1, 1.3 and 1.5). Remote interpreting (RI), a novel modality only a decade ago, is now rapidly spreading (Braun 2015a) thus affecting the participatory framework and the demand for interpreting services. 1.4.2. A typology of interpreter‐mediated events Interpreter‐mediated events have traditionally been categorized on the basis of single parameters. One such parameter is the communicative situation or context in which the event takes place and, consequently, distinctions were made between conference interpreting, court interpreting, liaison interpreting, dialogue interpreting, public service interpreting or TV interpreting. In the light of these distinctions, contributions to further specify these interpreting areas have been provided, among others, by Pöchhacker (2016 [2004]) and Diriker (2015) for conference interpreting, Hertog (2015) and Morris (2015) for legal and courtroom interpreting, Ozolins (2014) and Gentile et al. (1996) for liaison interpreting, Merlini (2015) and Wadensjö (2002 [1993]) for dialogue interpreting, Valero (2011) for public service interpreting, and Straniero Sergio (2007) for media and talk‐show interpreting. Alexieva (2002 [1997]) developed a more comprehensive approach to the typology of interpreter‐ mediated events. She suggested a “multi‐parameter” approach which determines the interpreter’s role and the interpreting modality (simultaneous with or without booth, consecutive with or without notes, whispered interpreting). The suggested parameters are: a) elements of the communicative situation (“Who speaks, to Whom, about What, When and Why, ib. 221; see also § 2.1 and 2.2); b) the nature of the text delivered by the speaker (for example, if it is more oral‐like or written‐like); c) the degree of intercultural mediation performed by the interpreter in the communicative situation (that is, each situation can be located in a specific point of a “universality” vs. “culture‐specific” scale) (see also § 2.1.4). A scientific conference where knowledge is shared among speaker and audience and, therefore, no intercultural mediation is required, is an instance of the former. A hearing with an asylum seeker is an instance of the latter. Alexieva’s proposed typology can certainly help trainee interpreters grasp the constitutive features and implications of the professional assignments they will have to face, and prepare accordingly. In particular, the interpreter’s attention should be devoted to the communicative elements of the 47 situation for each task or professional assignment; these should also include the how and where elements: ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Who speaks: social role, professional/personal background, ideological orientation, speaking style and register of the person(s) delivering the speech to Whom: social role, professional/personal background, ideological orientation of the person(s) addressed in the speaker’s speech about What: subject matter of the speech, lexicon and register, specific terminology, glossary When: date, routine meeting, special occasion, international event Why: ultimate goals of the speaker(s) and addressee(s), service call, emergency call, request for information How: face‐to‐face interaction, via telephone, via video, satellite communication; rhetorical conventions, communicative structure and monological/dialogical dynamics; degree of immediacy and unpredictability vs. pre‐process planning of the communicative exchange Where: all participants on the same site, all primary speakers in different locations, mixed formulae. Alexieva’s multi‐parameter approach is very relevant for understanding the settings and conditions of the interpreter’s task, develop expectations and inferences and, consequently, allow for an adequate interpreter preparation and performance. Most of these settings already use technologies allowing remote interpretation which nowadays is a common feature in all interpreting fields and subject matters. In this chapter we will focus only on dialogue interpreting which is here to be intended as a hyperonym including liaison, business, community and public service interpreting. We will do so based on the profiles of interpreter‐service providers (demand‐side) and on the market trends emerging from the most recent surveys on the use of RI, both telephone‐ and video‐based interpreting (Spinolo 2014 and VEASYT 2018). 1.4.3. Demand for RI As anticipated, demand for RI has gained ground and is rapidly increasing. A more precise picture of how interpreters are expected to work in remote mode and where emerges from surveys on language service providers. An overview of the market demand exclusively for telephone interpreting was published by Kelly et al. (2008) and Kelly (2008) and covered North‐America. We will focus on two recent surveys concerning both telephone and video‐based interpreting: one regional survey (Spinolo 2014) which offered the first “snapshot” of RI services and expected growth in the Emilia Romagna region, and one international survey carried out in UK, Spain and Italy (VEASYT 2018) within the framework of the Shift Project (www.shiftinorality.eu). Translation and Interpreting (T&I) providers based in Emilia Romagna, a central Italy, economically thriving region, were surveyed by Spinolo (2014) who contacted the fifty‐eight companies active in this field. Twenty‐two answered, sixteen of which provided RI as one of their services. The survey results indicated that telephone interpreting was required more than video‐based interpreting and that the demand for RI mostly came from businesses, private citizens and, to a minor extent, from public services. The 16 respondents were small‐medium sized T&I companies. They worked with a large number of freelance interpreters who generally went upon appointment to their clients’ premises for RI services, or worked from home via their PCs or telephones. Less often did they work from the T&I offices or from their homes with equipment provided by T&I companies. From the professional interpreters’ perspective, this regional survey shows that they enjoy a certain degree of independence (they can work from home with their own technical equipment), they are mainly called for commercial assignments and have time to prepare properly since, unlike telephone 48 interpreters working for emergency services (see Amato infra), they are fully aware of what kind of client they will meet and for which kind of topics, as they mainly work upon appointment. The market survey carried out by Veasyt across the three above‐mentioned countries involved 270 T&I users/clients on the one hand, and 262 interpreters and T&I providers on the other. Veasyt’s RI‐ focused survey is the first of its kind and gives an unprecedented insight into present market needs and future trends. A first general overview concerning both types of respondents is the following. With respect to T&I clients, about 50% of them work in the public sector and prefer RI for the following reasons: immediate response, short interpreting services, confidentiality and safety concerns, cost‐ effectiveness concerns, unavailability of an interpreter on site or of the languages required (usually languages of lesser diffusion). With respect to interpreters working in remote mode, 95% of them are freelancers and work for commercial businesses, health and social services and, more rarely, in conferences. 1.4.4. Spanish and Italian markets Let’s now briefly present the main characteristics of the T&I Spanish and Italian markets8 surveyed by Veasyt from the clients’/users’ perspective in order to highlight the present and future market demand for RI services. Spain ‐ The Spanish market’s demand for T&I services appears to be considerable and already mature for RI specifically. Spanish clients/users account for the largest share of the international respondents (191 respondents to the questionnaire). Approximately one third of respondents are public companies (33%), followed by public administration agencies (28%), privately‐owned companies (22%) and free‐lance/self‐employed professionals (14%). The majority of the public administration agencies are regional and social‐health authorities, but there are also representatives of other institutional tiers (municipalities and provinces), which means that public services are in great need of interpreters and translators in their daily contacts with foreigners, economic migrants and refugees. Slightly over half of the respondents have already used RI services (53% of 138 respondents), both telephone and video‐based, especially the former, which shows that RI is already a widespread service. The vast majority of the clients/users value the advantages of RI and would recommend it. Therefore, the RI market appears highly promising. Italy ‐ The T&I market portrayed by the Italian survey (75 respondents) is mainly made up of private companies (61%), self‐employed professionals and public companies (13%) and public administration agencies (8%). The vast majority of respondents (78% of 58 respondents) have never used RI, but appreciate the opportunity of having an interpreter always available online (62%) or consider it suitable for their work settings (22%). Those who have already availed themselves of remote interpreters have used video‐ based more than telephone‐based interpreting. 1.4.5. Work settings Let’s now consider the types of work settings requiring interpreting services, and potentially RI, emerging from the surveys. 8 The UK survey is not taken into consideration here because only four questionnaires were completed. 49 Interpreters are required for international business transactions and the typical settings for these are trade shows and international events. They are also necessary when requesting information, carrying out surveys, drafting contracts and sales agreements, providing customer and after‐sales services, meetings with foreign colleagues, clients and suppliers. Multinationals need them when training partners, during conventions with their dealers and board meetings with foreign partners and shareholders. As already observed, interpreters are in great demand across public services, especially nowadays with the increased flows of non‐nationals due to a variety of reasons. Typical settings are: - Healthcare: chemist’s shops booking services for medical consultation hospitals medical centres - Law and order: law‐enforcement agencies police stations detention centres courts hotspots for refugees accommodation centres for asylum seekers - Social and educational settings: social service centres info points recreation centres schools - Other: operations connected to emergency telephone numbers administrative and public‐sector offices telephone enquiries (tourism and entertainment, utilities, call centres etc.) insurance companies banks 1.4.6. Conclusion The traditional “one‐parameter” typology distinction in work settings does not seem to apply in the case of RI because this is an over‐arching interpreting modality, employed across all fields − dialogue, conference, media, legal, etc. As a result, subject matters are extremely varied and so are the associated communicative features. Therefore, in order to address the challenges posed by RI (see § 2.3 and 3.3), remote interpreters must familiarize themselves with as many settings as possible and hone their skills by regular practice and self‐evaluation of their performance. Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ Which work settings require remote interpreting services? What are the key elements of Alexieva’s multi‐parameter typology? What are the key communicative elements? 50 Recommended readings Braun, Sabine (2015a): “Remote interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 346‐348. Braun, Sabine (2015b): “Videoconference interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 436‐438. Grbic, Nadja (2015): “Settings”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 370‐371. Kelly, Nataly; Pöchhacker, Franz (2015): “Telephone interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 412.415. 51 References Alexieva, Bistra (2002 [1997]): “A typology of interpreter‐mediated events”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds.), The Interpreting Studies Reader. London: Routledge, 218‐233. Braun, Sabine (2015a): “Remote interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 346‐348. Braun, Sabine (2015b): “Videoconference interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 436‐438. Diriker, Ebru (2015): “Conference interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 78‐82. Gentile, Adolfo; Ozolins, Uldis; Vasilakakos Mary (1996): Liaison interpreting: A Handbook. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Grbic, Nadja (2015): “Settings”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 370‐371. Hertog, Erik (2015): “Legal interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge,230‐235. Kelly, Nataly (2008): Telephone Interpreting. A comprehensive guide to the profession. Bloomington: Trafford Publishing. Kelly, Nataly; De Palma, Donald; Beninatto, Renato (2008): “Telephone Interpretation: The Demand Side”. http://www.commonsenseadvisory.com/AbstractView/tabid/74/ArticleID/1190/Title/TelephoneInt erpretationTheDemandSide/Default.aspx] Kelly, Nataly; Pöchhacker, Franz (2015): “Telephone interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 412.415. Merlini, Raffaela (2015): “Dialogue Interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 102‐107. Morris. Ruth (2015) “Courtroom interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge, 91‐93. Ozolins, Uldis (2014): “Descriptions of Interpreting and their Ethical Consequences”, FITISPos International Journal, 1, 23‐41. http://www3.uah.es/fitispos_ij/OJS/ojs‐ 2.4.5/index.php/fitispos/article/view/9] Pöchhacker, Franz (2016 [2004]): Introducing Interpreting Studies. London/New York: Routledge. Spinolo, Nicoletta (2014): “Nuove tecnologie e modalità di interpretazione: osservazione del mercato emiliano‐romagnolo”, Paper presented at Oraliter Conference (Forlì, December 4, 2014). Straniero Sergio, Francesco (2007): Talkshow Interpreting. La mediazione linguistica nella comunicazione spettacolare. Trieste: EUT. Valero, Carmen (ed.) (2011): Traducción e Interpretación en los Servicios Públicos en un mundo INTERcoNEcTado. Public Service Interpreting and Translation in the Wild Wired World. Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones Universidad de Alcalà. Veasyt (2018): Remote Interpreting Services: Future or present? Results of a market survey in Italy, Spain and United Kingdom. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] Wadensjö, Cecilia (2002 [1993]): “The Double Role of Dialogue Interpreting”, F. Pöchhacker; M. Shlesinger (eds), The Interpreting Studies Reader. London: Routledge, 354‐370. 52 1.5. Parties, factors and instrumentalities involved Gabriel Cabrera Méndez ‐ Dualia SL, Enrico Capiozzo and Lisa Danese ‐ VEASYT Srl 1.5.1. Description of Dualia’s call and appointment management system Since telephone interpreting started as a public service in 1973, it has been used in a wide range of settings and for many different purposes, although the parties involved in this form of communication are generally the same: at least two speakers and one interpreter. Telephone interpreting is most frequently found in public service settings (emergencies, hospitals, city councils, social services, NGOs, etc.) and it is used worldwide (see § 1.4). The main parties involved in service calls are: - The client: the person or organization who calls to request a service from a service provider but does not know or speak the language of the service provider. - The service provider: the person, institution or company who receives the request from the client but cannot satisfy the request because they do not share a common language in which to communicate. Client and service provider can be located in the same place (e.g. the consultation room of a general practitioner) or in different locations (e.g. the client calling the emergency service after a car accident on the motorway). - The interpreter: the person who helps overcome the language barrier between the client and the service provider. The interpreter is always located in a different place and interprets over the phone. In some cases, there is more than one service provider on the same line with the client and the interpreter. For example, during a mountain rescue the service provider may need to include on the call the police, a doctor, or the helicopter pilot, and they all give instructions to the lost person, with the interpreter’s assistance. The main communication channel involved in this conversation mediated by a remote interpreter is the telephone line, through which the client, service provider and interpreter can speak and listen to each other. The way the call takes place and proceeds depends on the company that provides the service and the technology that it uses, but the following can be a simple example of how it unfolds: 1. The client calls a public institution to request a service. (Ex.: An accident happens on the motorway and the driver calls the Emergency Service.) 2. The service provider answers the phone, identifies the client’s mother tongue, dials the number of the telephone interpreting service and selects the language. Every service provider has a different way to identify the client’s mother tongue, but in many cases the client is able to say in Spanish what language he or she speaks. (Ex.: The operator of the Emergency Service dials the number of Dualia Platform and a recorded voice asks the operator to digit/dial the code for the language required.) 3. The telephone interpreting service calls an interpreter for the selected language. All the interpreters are on a list and can be called according to their availability. Therefore, the system is able to call the right interpreter who is on duty/call at that moment and include him/her in the conversation with the client and the service provider. (Ex.: The operator calls the system and dials 1 for English; after a few seconds the interpreter is connected.) 4. At this point, the call turns into a 3‐way call: the three participants can listen to each other, and the interpreter can interpret what both interlocutors are saying. 53 Stages 3 and 4 seem very simple to the telephone interpreting service user, but they actually conceal a much more complex connection protocol: 1. 2. 3. 4. The user calls the switchboard. The switchboard processes the user's needs (the language code entered by the operator). The switchboard looks for an interpreter for the language selected by the operator. The switchboard calls the interpreter and transfers the user and the interpreter’s call into a virtual room where they can have their conversation. Contrary to what the user/operator may believe, the client is no longer on the original line. 5. If required, the switchboard can additionally call a third phone number and add it to the virtual room as well. 6. When the call finishes, the switchboard records all the data regarding the service and hangs up all calls. The virtual switchboard does all this automatically, using algorithms for its correct functioning and requiring a significant amount of specialised information. Therefore – and as is already the case with simultaneous interpreting at conferences – professional interpreters depend on a technical team of engineers, computer scientists and other specialists to ensure that their work can be properly performed and evolve over time, as technology itself evolves. 1.5.2. Description of VEASYT’S call and appointment management system Video interpreting solutions open up new opportunities for the use of language services in the public and private sector. These opportunities can only be taken up after careful preparation of the service and a rational management of requests. In the case of video interpreting, on the basis of VEASYT’s experience, the service should be managed by a web or software platform designed to optimize the use of computer or mobile remote services. There are two ways to request, manage and supply a video interpreting service: - on appointment: the service provider has the opportunity to identify the right professional for the client’s needs or, in case of no intermediation and direct contact between client and interpreter, the client has the opportunity to browse the interpreters’ profiles and choose one based on language, specialization, feedback from other clients, education and professional experience; - instant call: this does not require the booking of the interpreter and is used for emergency or non‐schedulable situations. In this case, the service provider must make sure there are interpreters available in the time slot requested by the client so that a professional can be contacted a few minutes after the request. In both cases, the digital platform needs to be able to support the client using the service in a simple and effective manner. For clients who use VRI service regularly (for example public administrations and private companies), a series of service and support activities before and during the service should be provided for, in order to: - minimize and trouble‐shoot potential technical problems; - over time, select a cluster of interpreters who can be trained – if needed – to meet the client’s specific requirements, with knowledge of the context and specific terminology. 1.5.3. Remote Interpreting service providers: roles, functions, responsibilities: Dualia In a monolingual situation, the role of the service provider is to deliver a service to a client without interaction with a third party during the conversation. During a bilingual call, in which the service 54 provider cannot understand the language spoken by the client, however, the service provider shall include a professional interpreter on the call to mediate the conversation and translate the client’s request. In principle, once the interpreter is on line, it is the service provider who leads the conversation and not the interpreter, since interpreters are a resource used by the service provider (who therefore becomes a user of interpreting services) to deliver good quality service, and the service provider is responsible for any decision taken relating to the case in question. In the case of public services, the service provider may decide to include other service dispatchers/parties on the call, such as doctors, policemen, firemen, ambulance drivers, etc., depending on the situation described by the client and translated by the interpreter. Nevertheless, the role of the service provider as responsible for the conversation ends when a new authority joins the call, as in the case of a doctor or a police officer. In all these cases, the interpreter remains in the conversation with all the parties and interprets what the other parties on the phone say to the client. Some of the parties may even leave the telephone conversation after passing the call to someone in a higher position of responsibility within the organisation. For example, a telephone operator of a medical emergency service may leave the call when the doctor joins in and speaks directly to the client with the help of an interpreter. 1.5.4. Remote Interpreting service providers: roles, functions, responsibilities: VEASYT Until some time ago, the idea of obtaining remote support from a professional interpreter in a simple and fast way was considered challenging, even impossible. However, thanks to the spread of robust, reliable and accessible technologies, a wide range of new tools are now available for remote interpreting services; these include telephone services and videoconference. These technologies guarantee promptness, flexibility and economic sustainability to those parties in need of communicating with people who speak different languages, and to professional interpreters working remotely from their office or home for clients all over the world. Remote interpreting companies play an important role: they meet the expectations and needs of users of professional services, and also establish new working modes for interpreters: ‐ if necessary, remote interpreting companies can establish limits to the countless modes of using remote interpreting services, ensuring interpreters are provided with adequate conditions (i.e., working conditions, working hours, minimum price below which quality cannot be offered, etc.); ‐ remote interpreting companies can motivate and stimulate interpreters to adopt innovative interpreting modes or tools (as video remote interpreting services), some of which may even break old taboos held by the interpreting profession. Simultaneous interpreting was first used officially in the 1940’s (in particular at the Nuremberg Trials), while telephone interpreting was introduced in the 1970’s and 1980’s as a revolutionary approach to language services. Previously, both of these interpretation techniques had been dismissed as unacceptable. The same happened with video interpreting: today this interpreting technique is becoming part of our daily life and remote interpreting, in general, will increasingly play an essential role in the field of language services. This trend is highlighted also in the data collected by a market survey conducted within the "SHIFT In Orality" project. According to the survey, 44% of users of interpreting services (public bodies, private companies, freelancers, etc.) already have experience with the use of remote services (over the phone or in videoconference), with over 79% considering the experience as positive. And interpreting service providers (freelance interpreters, interpreting agencies) are increasing as well: 85% of respondents expressed a need to provide remote interpretation services (see also Russo, section 1.4 in this 55 Handbook), while only 65% of respondents said they were able to provide them. These data show how both sides of the market (supply and demand) are ready to receive remote interpreting services. Remote interpreting companies should also redefine, educate and help create a new market, potentially much broader than the current one, since it is now easier to access professional services and the distance between users and interpreters is now reduced. Heeding old and new market needs, talking to both professional interpreters and users, remote interpreting companies will generate great opportunities to offer more efficient management and quality efficiency, to supply a potential market much larger than today’s market. Providers will play the following roles: - manage and supply professional remote interpreting services; introduce and disseminate innovative remote interpreting practices; talk to professional interpreters and advanced training centres to develop new professional guidelines; boost the potential of these new practices to explore new frontiers of language services. 1.5.5. Interpreters: roles, functions, responsibilities Telephone Interpreting Service The role of an interpreter in a telephone conversation with a client and a service provider is to convey to the service provider the needs expressed by the client (and the answer from the service provider to the client) in the most accurate way. The perception of accuracy may vary from one service to another. Due to this discrepancy in what accuracy and quality means, Dualia Teletraducciones realised it could not rely on one single general procedure. Therefore, it engaged in a round of formal bilateral exchanges in order to draft specific interpreting protocols for each service (health emergencies, hospitals, domestic violence, ambulances, etc.), so that professional interpreters working for Dualia can act appropriately in every situation simply by applying the interpreting protocol for that service. A notion shared by all interpreting protocols is that the interpreter must not interfere or offer his/her personal opinion, unless such an interference is indispensable to solve a cultural problem that may be hampering communication. In this case, the interpreter must clarify that what s/he is going to say is an addition by the interpreter. Regarding responsibilities, the interpreter is responsible for what s/he translates during the call when s/he is acting as a freelance professional. If the interpreter is acting as a “resource” made available by a company that was awarded the tender to provide the services, the company shall be responsible a priori for all the interpreter’s actions. However, this situation may vary in some countries where the legislation holds the interpreter alone responsible for everything that is translated. Video Interpreting Service For every language service provider, interpreters are obviously important, since they are their suppliers. In the case of providers introducing innovative approaches and solutions, however, close collaboration and constant dialogue become essential in guiding the development and constant improvement of the service. Considering the numerous innovative aspects linked to video interpreting, a video interpreting company should use qualified professional interpreters with a prior professional experience of on‐site or phone interpreting. 56 In addition to experience, an essential work “tool” that characterizes professional interpreters is the compliance with a code of conduct that governs their job in any setting. The code of conduct contains principles aimed at ensuring maximum data protection, guaranteeing the privacy of all the interlocutors involved, discretion in the management of all information shared during the service, a professional attitude. The professional code of conduct and respect of said principles are powerful tools that characterise a professional, whether that professional works on site or remotely. Another noteworthy aspect is the interpreter’s ability to adapt to the specific setting of video interpreting and the features that distinguish it from on‐site interpreting. That is why the propensity of professionals to adjust their prior experience to this “new” practice should be investigated, as well as their willingness to take up a challenge and accept the necessary training even if they have many years of experience in interpreting but are approaching this practice for the first time. Turn‐taking management, coordination of turns and sometimes technical assistance (see § 3.3.3 and 3.3.4 in this volume) in advising clients on how to make the best use of technology during the service, should be skills that service providers must ask interpreters to acquire. In fact, some interpreting techniques can only be learnt by working in a videoconference setting. Obviously interpreters may also develop and implement their own strategies autonomously. And it may be necessary for interpreters to be familiar with digital platforms. Professionals work remotely − from their home or office − and they use hardware and their own connection: they therefore need to have at least a basic knowledge of the technology they use, although they can turn to the providers for help. Interpreters in a video interpreting service can play the following roles: - constant dialogue with the providers for service improvement; respect of the professional ethical code, also with remote services; knowledge and management of video‐mediated communication from a conversational and technological perspective. 1.5.6. Clients: needs and expectations Telephone Interpreting Service Interpreters and service providers should be aware of the fact that clients may not be used to working with an interpreter. Clients may present a request or need help to solve a problem ranging from an administrative issue to a real risk of death. In particular, in emergency situations it is difficult for a client to understand the needs and behaviour of an interpreter, simply because the client is in an emotional state, for example. Since the service provider does not speak the client’s language, it is the task of the interpreter to introduce him/herself as the interpreter and as the professional who will mediate the conversation. Dualia suggests doing this in one simple sentence, since emergency calls force interpreters to act very fast. Clients expect service providers and interpreters to act immediately and often get annoyed when the service provider asks questions that the client considers unnecessary; on some occasions, clients get aggressive towards service providers or the interpreter, producing “face‐threatening acts” (Brown and Levinson 1987), which may be attacks against the image, the quality or the professionalism of the interpreter. Service providers and interpreters must be trained to deal with particularly difficult communication situations regarding bad news, emotional interferences, cultural boundaries, death, etc. In some cases explanations may be needed, not only interpretation: in such cases, voice modulation or even short interactions between the interpreter and the client may be appropriate. 57 Video Interpreting Service Remote interpreting is still little known in Europe. Only telephone interpreting in the healthcare sector is probably better known and relatively widely used. According to the data collected in the “SHIFT in Orality” market survey (see also § 1.4), remote interpreting is mainly used in the social and healthcare field (43%), followed by the business sector (33%) and health services (32%). Telephone interpreting is today more widespread in public administrations (30.5% of respondents indicated the social and health sector as their main area of activity), with 19.3% using it always or often, compared to private companies (12.5%). These findings were predictable since telephone interpreting was the first remote service to become widespread, mainly thanks to its consolidated technology. There is still a small market penetration of video call services, since less than 3% use them with a higher frequency compared to interpreting over the phone or on‐site. However, video remote interpreting has the greatest growth potential. The number of those who indicated it as the preferred mode is 5 times higher than the percentage of those who today use remote interpreting on a regular basis. This demonstrates the potential growth for this service (on the supply side). To date, video interpreting services are largely unknown, but they offer some sought‐after features for clients − both public administrations and private companies. First of all, video interpreting is perceived as a service that can meet last‐minute communication needs at very short notice. In general, video interpreting services offer the advantage of reaching professionals working from the entire national territory (and beyond) in a short time, thereby identifying the best interpreter for a specific field, who should not only be proficient in the requested language(s) but also in the specific terminology. Another crucial request from clients, especially in sensitive fields like healthcare, is confidentiality and privacy. The use of a remote service, including video interpreting service, can respond to this need since it makes a professional available without being on site. You can also exclude the video component at sensitive times, for example during a medical check‐up. Users, in particular public administrations, also appreciate the reduced cost, as compared to on‐site services. Unfortunately, cost is often the main driver in the choice of an interpreting service, while the quality of the interpreting service and the technical features that are fundamental in providing the service adequately are not given proper consideration, or are taken for granted. A challenge for providers is to be able to improve service quality and make clients aware of it, to avoid succumbing to a cost‐based “market competition”. Summing up, also based on the SHIFT market survey, the following main elements are usually sought after by clients: - immediate response; the availability of the interpreter "almost in presence"; no need for travel; the possibility of involving more than one party in the conversation; flexible use from different devices and in different situations; easy access to many languages; skilled interpreters in the specific field; confidentiality and professional ethics; management efficiency; 58 - cost efficiency. 1.5.7. Suggestions on hardware and technical requirements Telephone Interpreting Service The technology that makes telephone interpreting possible has undergone a very positive evolution since its creation in 1973 with two important milestones: - The introduction of this service in the USA in a Police Station in San José in 1981. From that moment on, the demand for telephone interpreting has increased significantly. Contributing factors include decreased prices for long distance calls, toll‐free number access, and migration flows (Kelly 2008). - The evolution of mobile telephone services from the year 2000 onwards, with the advances of 3G, 4G and 5G technology, allows for rapid communication and the possibility of finding an Interpreter anywhere in the world. Current technology allows providers to find interpreters all over the world, and to select them by working hours, languages, dialects, topics, clients, etc. It is also possible to select a specific interpreter for a given client or ask the client if s/he prefers a male or female interpreter, a specific accent or dialect of a language. The service provider only needs to dial a number to get the right interpreter for the client. That seems to be very simple and it actually is very easy, from the client’s point of view, but the structure behind the facade is extremely complex. It allows interpreters to register on a website, specifying the hours they are available, their language combination, their fields of expertise and even their gender. That way a service provider may select (in less than 30 seconds using a phone keyboard) a professional to interpret a case of domestic violence in Moroccan Arabic or in Latin‐American Spanish, or a professional specialised in interpreting for minors during a bank holiday at night. Nowadays, technology is moving towards VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), which allows the transfer of data via the Internet. A new range of opportunities can be available when all parties in the communication share the same technology. Ideas like conversation transcription, file uploading and downloading, videoconference over‐the‐ phone, etc. are now on the table of many research groups and service providers, like TRAIN: TRAIning Network on language technologies for interpreters, a consortium of Universities and Companies led by the University of Malaga. Yet, all these advantages may clash with the interests of the clients who value speed and price above all else. A good service, however, is not only supported by technology, it also needs the contribution of interpreters who understand that telephone interpreting needs/requires reliability and trust; and trust lies in the interpreter’s human touch, who is able to empathize with the client and fill any cultural gaps. In order to offer a professional, high quality service it is recommended that freelance interpreters always participate in calls from a silent environment (never in the street or in a supermarket, for example), that they use headsets in order to have free hands so as to be able to take notes during the conversation, and that they be close to a computer so as to use online dictionaries or any other source of information. Confidentiality and data protection are two additional pillars of this interpretation mode that need to be taken into consideration. Most interpreters understand confidentiality as keeping the secret of all the information that is shared during the conversation, but they may forget that someone could be listening to what they say. One of the reasons why a freelance interpreter should never attend a call in a public place is because anybody could be listening/eavesdropping and get information about a patient’s cancer or a survivor’s attacker. 59 Video Interpreting Service For clients Video interpreting service providers have to make clients and users understand that meeting some simple but crucial technical requirements is necessary to enjoy all the advantages of this practice. The requirements for users of a video interpreting service are: 1. computer or iOS/Android mobile device with webcam and microphone; For a top‐notch service from a computer the following hardware features are recommended: - RAM: 4 Gb or higher; - processor: 2 GHz or higher. Use from mobile device, if envisaged, should be made through an application. The requirements of the two main operating systems are: - Android 4.2 or higher; - iOS 7 or higher. - RAM: 2 Gb or higher; - processor: 1.50 GHz or higher. 2. high‐speed internet connection; The service requires a stable and hard‐wired internet connection, Wi‐Fi (dedicated network recommended) or 3G/LTE. Minimum recommended connection: - download: 2 Mbps / 4 Mbps; - upload: 1 Mbps / 2 Mbps; - ping: lower than 80 ms. Additional aspects to consider: - in the case of a platform that can be used online in web cloud mode, the use of a free browser that can use W3C WebRTC protocols is recommended: Google Chrome (recommended), Mozilla Firefox; - for clients who use VRI service regularly, the provider shall give technical advice in case of firewalls in the company network that can block video sessions; - the provider shall also give advice on the most suitable hardware for user‐specific use; - it may be advisable to arrange for the video interpreting service to be located in a quiet setting, without too much background noise, and with bright lighting. Before every session, a technical test of the service operation must be performed, reproducing the same (hardware and room) setting as during the session. The best and worst case scenarios for the service performance are described below. Best case scenario: - high‐performance computer/device; use of the best device on a case‐by‐case basis (e.g.: use of a tablet inside a hospital ward, because it is easier to move); - stable and high‐performance internet connection (if Wi‐Fi, dedicated network); - high‐definition webcam; - high‐quality microphone; - bright lighting. Worst case scenario: - low‐performance computer/device, low‐quality webcam and microphone; wrong choice of device on a case‐by‐case basis (e.g.: at a GP’s clinic use of the practitioner’s PC, despite the fact that it will be needed by the practitioner to take notes, search for information and write prescriptions); - unstable and low‐performance internet connection; - dim lighting. 60 For Interpreters Video interpreting providers may organize and secure their services in two main ways: - preparing interpreter workstations in their offices (centralising solution, “call centre” mode); - enabling the interpreters to work remotely from their home or office (distributed solution). The latter is clearly the main trend and has numerous advantages, while requiring a clear and strict testing protocol of IT devices. That is why it is necessary to carefully test the technology used by each interpreter initially, but also to plan periodical tests in order to ensure the best technical service. These tests should also be performed if the professional wishes to modify his/her work setting (room, lights, background) or devices (computer, peripheral devices, connection). The main issues to check with the interpreter are the following: - laptop or desktop computer; - internet connection; - webcam; - microphone; - headphones; - workstation. The interpreter should use the video interpreting platform from a computer. In the case of VEASYT, in web cloud mode, the interpreter can use a browser of choice between Google Chrome (recommended) and Mozilla Firefox (currently, the two browsers optimize the WebRTC technology according to the W3C requirements, the best ones to make a video call). One of the requirements for interpreters is that they use a laptop or desktop computer with adequate audio and video hardware. The provision of the service from mobile devices is not advisable, to ensure that the interpreter can work under the best possible conditions. The supply of a high‐quality video interpreting service requires the use of the most up‐to‐date technologies, i.e. presenting the following characteristics (as of 2017): - high‐performance desktop or laptop computer (RAM: 4 Gb or higher; processor: 2 GHz or higher); - high‐speed internet connection (optical fibre or 4G mobile) with Ethernet cable or high‐quality Wi‐Fi (avoiding the simultaneous connection of multiple devices). 10 Mbps connection, which can be tested with online tools like www.speedtest.net; - high‐definition 1080p webcam (HD); - over‐ear headphones with high‐quality microphone; - dedicated video interpreting room, free of noise and distractions; - homogeneous and natural lighting of the room and the interpreter; - homogeneous and neutral background colour; - a second device (computer or mobile) is also recommended, to consult a dictionary or for lexicographical searches. In the worst case scenario, it is also possible to supply the service with medium‐performance technologies: - desktop or laptop computer (RAM: 2 Gb; processor: 1.50 GHz); - ADSL or 3G internet connection, higher than 4 Mbps; - laptop built‐in webcam or external 720p webcam; - earbuds with built‐in microphone; - natural ambient lighting; - neutral, inhomogeneous background; - a second device (computer or mobile) is also recommended, to consult a dictionary or for lexicographical searches. The supply of the service in precarious conditions should be avoided: - low‐performance computer; 61 - poor or unstable internet connection; low‐definition webcam; absence of headphones and use of loud speakers; poorly insulated room; poor lighting or backlighting; positioning of computer or webcam on unstable support; not neutral and non‐professional background (e.g.: bedroom) consulting a dictionary or performing searches on the same computer used for the interpreting service. Points for discussion ‐ Management of the working tools of the interpreter and the technology necessary to provide remote interpreting during a video call: how do I prepare my work environment? How do I organize my desk? ‐ Management of the technology to carry out a video interpreting service: what should I do before a session? How do I manage the webcam framing and the anxiety that comes from it? ‐ Management of availability: Should I be available 24 hours to answer phone calls? ‐ Management of telephone interpreting system: What are the steps to follow if a service provider wants to add an interpreter to the conversation? What is the role of the switchboard in this procedure? Recommended readings Braun Sabine & Taylor , Judith (2012): Videoconference and remote interpreting in criminal proceedings. Antwerpen: Intersentia. Cox, Antoon; Lázaro Gutiérrez, Raquel (2016): “Interpreting in the Emergency Department. How context matters for practice”, F. M. Federici (ed.), Mediating Emergencies: Front‐line Translation and Interpreting. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 33‐58. Hlavac, Jim (2013): "Should Interpreters Be Trained and Tested in Telephone and Video‐Link Interpreting? Responses from Practitioners and Examiners", International Journal of Interpreter Education, (IJIE), 5 (1), 34‐50. Jaime Pérez, Adriana (2015): “Remote interpreting in public services. Developing a 3G phone interpreting application”, R. Lázaro Gutiérrez; F. Vigier Moreno; M.M. Sánchez Ramos, (eds.), Investigación Emergente en Traducción e Interpretación. Granada: Comares, 73‐82. Kelly, Nataly (2008): "A Medical Interpreter's Guide to Telephone Interpreting", IMIA. http://www.imiaweb.org/uploads/pages/380.pdf] 62 References Kelly, Nataly (2008): "A Medical Interpreter's http://www.imiaweb.org/uploads/pages/380.pdf] Guide to Telephone Interpreting". Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2005): “Remote interpreting: issues of multi‐sensory integration in a multilingual task”, Meta, 50 (2), 727‐738. Braun, Sabine (2007): “Interpreting in small‐group bilingual videoconferences: challenges and adaptation processes”, Interpreting, 9 (1), 21‐46. Brown, Penelope and Stephen C. Levinson (1987 [1978]): Politeness: Some Universals in Laguage Usage. Cambridge: CUP. 63 64 2 Telephone interpreting 65 2.1 Face‐to‐face vs telephone‐mediated communication – monolingual María Jesús González Rodríguez ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus This section presents some considerations on monolingual telephone communication and expands some of the concepts presented in § 1.1.4. The goal is to define traits that can be useful in grasping the basic features of bilingual interaction mediated by a telephone interpreter, as described in the following sections. In the first place, we will compare face‐to‐face conversation with telephone calls to determine the main differences between the two and briefly present the overall structure of a call, especially in the opening and closing phases. Secondly, we will describe the distinctive features of telephone conversation and classify them based on the existing relations between the parties and on the context. Thirdly, we will briefly discuss intercultural issues and the changes in communication in the light of ICT developments. Finally, the conclusions will present observations that may be useful to understand the present and the future that lies ahead in telephone communication. 2.1.1 Telephone vs. face‐to‐face interaction In order to highlight the difference between face‐to‐face and telephone conversation, it is essential to start from the main concepts developed by conversation analysts, who studied how speakers co‐ construct conversational exchanges, what mechanisms and dynamics come into play and how conversation – as the main activity in social life – is structured (Kornblit 2007: 137). Telephone conversations may occur in different settings which can influence the structure of the call. For example, a listener may call a TV or radio station during a broadcast: in this case, the presenter manages turns of talk on the phone. On the other hand, “standard” telephone interactions (over‐the‐ phone conversations between two speakers) are usually characterized by a more “horizontal” relationship, where both parties co‐construct the interaction bilaterally and actively. In standard calls, the interaction is purely verbal, that is, a single sense interaction, with sound as the only input, with no gestures or any other kind of sensorial inputs typical of face‐to‐face interaction. This is definitely the main and most distinctive element of all telephone interactions as compared to face‐to‐face encounters. This specific feature of telephone interaction – single sense input with no shared space – has an impact on discourse markers, turn allocation management and adjacency pairs, which are organized on the basis of conditional relevance (see § 1.1.6.2). One of the most studied aspects of telephone interaction is turn sequence9. A conversation usually follows an “ABABAB” sequence, where A and B represent the two parties in the conversation. This conversational order can be used to analyse and understand telephone conversation mechanisms: how A and B enter into contact, how turn allocation occurs, the causes and consequences of such allocation, or how the parties close the interaction. 2.1.2 General structure of a telephone interaction The general structure of a call is described in § 2.3. Here, we will focus on the initial and final sequences (Leonardi 2003: 12‐17). A short scheme of such sequences is the following: Initial sequences: 1. Opening the channel (‘summons/answer’): (telephone rings)// B: “Hello?” 2. Identification sequence: it can occur by other‐identification –“Mr. García?”− or self‐ identification –“No, I’m his partner, Martín Gálvez”−, or even not take place at all, if the par es already know each other well (e.g. family members or close friends). In calls to companies or “A sequence can be defined as a set of turns within the same semantic/functional unit” (Gallardo‐Paúls 1993: 39, translation by the author). 9 66 institutions, the receiver’s identification usually takes place in the first turn – B: “Hello, Police Department”, and therefore other‐identification does not usually occur. 3. Greeting sequence: sometimes, based on the situation, the parties in the conversation, their relationships and the language spoken, this sequence can appear before the identification or in the same turn as the identification, as an adjacency pair –B: “Carmen?”// A: “Yes, hello dear, I was waiting for you to call”–, or be compressed into one single turn of answer/self‐ identification/greeting –“Police department, good afternoon”–, or may even not occur at all, if the two parties know each other well. 4. Initial inquiries: exchange of more or less conventional expressions of politeness, such as “How are you doing? It’s been so long!”; they can sometimes be used as greetings and followed in the same turn by an expression of interest. –B: “Hello?” // A: “How are you? How did the business dinner go yesterday?”. 5. Approaching strategies: these are turns used by the speaker to introduce the main topic of the conversation, which is usually the reason for the call –“well, regarding the order we made last week...”– or other complementary topics –“well, I hope the strike does not cause further delays today”. Usually, the reason for calling − or primary topic − appears at the beginning or in the opening sequences, after identifications, greetings and/or initial inquiries. These initial sequences take other forms in face‐to‐face interaction, where the same interactional result may be achieved using different communicative moves, such as extraverbal or paraverbal ones: for instance, calling somebody by their name, clearing one’s throat, or even simply looking at one’s conversation partner, whose reply can be verbal, paraverbal or gestural. Moreover, in face‐to‐face interactions, the identification sequence may not occur and the conversation may open directly with an expression of interest (“How are you today?”). According to Schegloff (1974), a specific feature of telephone interaction is the asymmetry of information between the two participants. For instance, in a call to an emergency number (112), the caller selects the number he/she wants to call, knows the reason for the call and knows the call will be answered by someone who is related to the goal of the call, while the operator does not know who is calling, nor the reason for the call and is in need of information from the caller in order to respond to the caller’s request. In a face‐to‐face medical encounter, instead, there is a reversed asymmetry: it is the doctor who has the expert knowledge and not the patient. Final sequences, based on Rath (1995): 1. Pre‐closings/confirmation: the possibility of closing is presented with markers such as “OK”, “Thank you”, “Let’s keep in touch”, etc.; if the other speaker agrees, he/she approves the intention of closing with similar markers and adjacency pairs –A: “All right, then we’ll talk later, OK?” // B: “OK”. At this stage, the use of paralinguistic elements like lengthened vowels is extremely important, since they can become pre‐closing markers – Like in Spanish (B: “Cla:::ro”) or in Italian (“Va be:::ne”). 2. Synthesis/agreement: these sequences usually contain closing summaries or agreements about the primary goal of the call or other issues. 3. Thanks: expressions of gratitude and/or appreciation and, in some cases, other further remarks, especially in service and institutional calls –B: “Thank you very much, that was very kind of you” // A: “My pleasure”. They usually appear in adjacency pairs, just like opening remarks. 4. Farewells: they can occur in one or more turns: A: “Nave a nice day”// B: “Same to you, goodbye”// A: “Goodbye”. 67 Final parts of a telephone interaction present − just like the opening ones − a precise order based on sequences of adjacency pairs. The fact that the end of the interaction is approaching is usually signalled with expressions such as, for example, “Well, let’s keep in touch”, “OK”, etc. According to Schegloff and Sacks (1974), they are possible pre‐closings that, if approved by the other speaker with an adjacency pair, will lead to the farewells and closing of the interaction (“Goodbye”, “Talk to you soon”). Research shows that the closing phase can present more variability than the opening one, although in service calls the closing phase tends generally to be more standardised. However, both openings and closings can vary; such modifications (sometimes due to merging or changes in the usual order of turns) do not only respond to functional mechanisms of communication, but they may also be due to socio‐cultural factors and/or the language used in the interaction, an issue we will analyse in § 2.1.4. 2.1.3 Classification of telephone interactions Some attempts to categorise telephone interactions start from the concept of ‘closeness – distance’ of the interlocutors, which is another important difference between face‐to‐face and telephone conversations. This difference can lead, among other things, to the use of a variety of spatial deixis and verbal acknowledgement tokens (“mh‐mh”, “OK”, “yeah”), that in face‐to‐face interaction can be conveyed with gestures or facial expressions. Rath (1995) applies this concept of ‘closeness – distance’ to the relationship between speakers in a telephone interaction and proposes a classification of telephone conversations: 1. ‘Service calls’: interactions where interlocutors do not know each other, with A being the party requesting a service or information on a topic, and B the operator or representative of an institution, company, etc. 2. ’Phatic calls’: the parties know each other (family members, friends and acquaintances) and during the conversation a social relationship is reinforced or maintained. This group can be divided into two sub‐groups: 2.1. ‘Purely phatic conversations’: aimed at reinforcing the social relationship. 2.2. ‘Phatic conversations with an additional aim’: interactions between acquaintances, family members or friends aimed at dealing with an issue and where the relationship is reinforced, too. We will focus on service calls studied, among others, by Bercelli (2003: 59‐90). The goal of these calls is to obtain a service, and it is usually expressed in the initial part of the interaction; the main objective of both speakers is to achieve that goal as soon as possible. Since the operator (B) and the caller (A) do not know each other, expressions of politeness (“How are you?”) are rarely found, and approaching strategies are confined to requests and, sometimes, some clarifications. Likewise, greetings are also very compressed in order to save time (Rath 1995: 31‐33). This trend can be detected from the very beginning –“British Museum, hello?”, “Police department, good afternoon”. The final part of the call has the same features, as once the goal is achieved, speakers go straight to the actual closing, with formulas such as "Thank you for using our service" and short and fast farewells. Emergency calls also rank among service calls. These are interactions where B calls an emergency number (A) to report about a situation of danger/risk, or to get immediate assistance; in these calls, an important role is played by emotions. Emergency calls include many different services that can be provided (firefighters, health emergencies, police, gender violence, etc.) that can be accessed by callers by dialling 112 (adopted in EU countries). Authors who have studied emergency calls10 have 10 Among others, Zimmerman 1984; Whalen & Zimmerman 1987, 1990; Whalen, Zimmerman & Whalen 1988; Zimmerman 1992; Wakin & Zimmerman 1999; Monzoni & Zorzi 2003. 68 found they have common features: the absolute priority for both speakers – and especially B, the operator ‐ is understanding: a) the reason for the call as soon as possible, b) what kind of service needs to be delivered and the degree of emergency and c) where the help is needed. In emergency interactions, the duration of the conversation will be reduced to the turns that are strictly necessary to achieve the goals described above, with short openings, self‐identification of B – and sometimes A – and statement of the main topic in A’s first turn (B: “Police department, good morning, how can I help you?” // A: “Yes, hello, I am a tourist and my purse has just been snatched!”); the identification of conversational priorities is usually directed by the operator (B), and closings are very short. 2.1.4 Cultural aspects in phone calls Telephone calls do not only differ in content and goals, they also reflect cultural and language differences. Even within the same language community, there can be different expressions of an interactional behaviour based on cultural models. Let us think, for instance, of Spanish: there can be many ways of answering the phone: a Mexican would say “Bueno”, an expression a Spaniard would not use, while in Colombia they would say “Aló” or “Alo”, and “Hallo” in Puerto Rico. Looking at closings, one may find “Chau” in Argentina, “Bye” in Mexico, or “Hasta luego” or “Adiós” in Spain. The opening turn is crucial, since it determines the relationship between the parties involved in the interaction and can have an impact on the cooperation between them and on the communication flow. The expectations of interlocutors at this stage are ‘culturally predetermined’, and so the use of a formulaic expression that is different from the interlocutor’s cultural repertoire might lead to perplexity, and may even hamper the typical structure of the opening. Another example may be that of timing: times and time schedules are very much dependent on culture and social organization; a call made at a time that is not acceptable in the other culture has an influence on the opening of the interaction and in the relationship that will be established between the parties. Another interesting aspect pertains to the use of language on the phone by native and non‐native speakers. For instance, Taleghani‐Nikazm (2002) found a difference in sequences containing expressions of interest between German native speakers and Farsi native speakers using German as a second language. The main difference found in these sequences is that non‐native speakers tended to use many turns to express interest not only for the speaker, but also for his/her family and friends, while native German speakers reduce pleasantries to just a couple of short turns. These examples show that inter‐ and cross‐cultural skills are essential when interpreting on the phone. 2.1.5 Impact of ICTs on telephone interaction Advances in ICTs have had an impact not only on the devices used to communicate, but also on the structure of interactions on the phone. For instance, the widespread use of mobile phones that allow you to see who the caller is, has changed the opening sequence: the identity of the caller can be seen on the display before the receiver answers the phone, and therefore replaces the conventional identification sequence. More and more frequently, rather than asking who is calling, receivers ask the caller (already identified on the display) where he/she is, or whether he/she is driving. Another example is the repeated use of questions to make sure that the other party can actually hear, especially when the line is bad, such as while travelling on a train or by car. Moreover, with smartphones it is possible to make video calls involving more sensory channels: sight and hearing, even without considering the touch functions of smartphones that provide a tactile experience (see § 3.1). Is it possible to keep the dichotomy of presence versus remoteness? Should we not rethink the concept of presence in terms that are not confined to physical presence? In 1998, Witmer and Singer 69 redefined presence speaking of a subjective experience of being in one place, even when one is physically situated in another. Moreover, the concept of single sense interaction on the phone is jeopardised by video calls (see § 3.1), where at least two senses are involved. 2.1.6 Conclusions The knowledge of standard sequences is useful in understanding the structure of phone calls but, as we have seen, these sequences can include specialised activities, compressed activities and cultural elements that can change depending on the native or non‐native status of speakers. Technologies are also having an impact on telephone interactions, as they are shifting from single sense to multi‐sense interaction, from presence versus remoteness to presence in remoteness. Moreover, in the special case of emergency calls, a crucial role is played by prosody, which has a very important function in the perception and description of facts, in the expression of emotions, their implications, etc. (see § 1.2). Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ What are the differences between face‐to‐face and telephone interaction? What are the main parts of a conversation, and why are they the main ones? What are the main categories of telephone interactions? What cultural elements affect telephone interactions? How is the evolution of ICTs affecting telephone interaction? Recommended readings Sacks, Harvey; Schegloff, Emmanuel A.; Jefferson, Gail (1974): “A symplest systematics for the organization of turn‐taking in conversation”, Language, 50, 4, 696‐735 [trad. it. (2000) L‘organizzazione della presa del turno nella conversazione, G. Fele, P.P. Giglioli (eds), Linguaggio e contesto sociale. Bologna: il Mulino, 97‐131]. Gallardo‐Paúls, Beatriz (1993): Lingüística perceptiva y conversación: secuencias, LinX: A Monographic Series in Linguistics and World Perception, Annexa 4, VIII. Valencia: Universitat, Departament de Teoria dels Llenguatges. http://roderic.uv.es/bitstream/handle/10550/30481/1993.GALLARDO_Secuencias.PDF?sequence=1 ] Rath, Rainer (1995): “Über das A und O des Telefonierens”, Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, Vol. 25 (3), 9‐35. https://doi.org/10.1007/] Vv.Aa. (2017): ORALITER: Formas de comunicación presencial y a distancia. Bologna: Bononia University Press. 70 References Bercelli, Fabrizio (2003): “Le aperture delle telefonate di servizio italiane”, E.M. Thüne; S. Leonardi (eds.), Telefonare in diverse lingue. Milano: Franco Angeli, 59‐90. Gallardo‐Paúls, Beatriz (1993): Lingüística perceptiva y conversación: secuencias, LinX: A Monographic Series in Linguistics and World Perception, Annexa 4, VIII. Valencia: Universitat, Departament de Teoria dels Llenguatges. http://roderic.uv.es/bitstream/handle/10550/30481/1993.GALLARDO_Secuencias.PDF?sequence=1 ] Kornblit, Ana Lia (ed.) (2007): Metodologías cualitativas en ciencias sociales: modelos y procedimientos de análisis. Buenos Aires: Biblos. Leonardi, Simona (2003): “Introduzione“, E.M. Thüne; S. Leonardi (eds.), Telefonare in diverse lingue. Milano: Franco Angeli, 9‐33. Monzoni, Chiara; Zorzi, Daniela (2003): “Le telefonate d’emergenza: un confronto fra l’italiano e l’inglese”, E.M. Thüne; S. Leonardi (eds.), Telefonare in diverse lingue. Milano: Franco Angeli, 163‐181. Rath, Rainer (1995): “Über das A und O des Telefonierens”, Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik, Vol. 25, (3), 9‐35. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03396124] Sacks, Harvey; Schegloff, Emanuel A.; Jefferson, Gail (1974): “A simplest systematics for the organization of turn‐taking for conversation”, Language, Vol. 50, 4, Part. 1 (December, 1974), 696‐ 735. http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~julia/cs4706/Sacks_et_al_1974.pdf] Taleghani‐Nikazm, Carmen (2002): “A conversation analytical study of telephone conversation openings between native and nonnative speakers”, Journal of Pragmatics, 34 (12), 1807‐1832. Thüne, Eva‐Maria; Leonardi, Simona (eds.) (2003): Telefonare in diverse lingue. Milano: Franco Angeli. Wakin, Michele; Zimmerman, Don H. (1999): “Reduction and specialization in emergency and directory assistance calls”, Research on Language and Social Interaction, 32 (4), 409‐437. Whalen, Jack et al. (1988): “When words fail: a single case analysis”, Social Problems, 35 (4), 335‐362. Whalen, Marilyn R.; Zimmerman, Don H. (1987): “Sequential and institutional contexts in calls for help”, Social Psychology Quarterly, 30 (2), 172‐185. Whalen, Marilyn R.; Zimmerman, Don H. (1990): “Describing trouble: practical epistemology in calls to the police”, Language in Society, 18, 465‐492. Witmer, Bob G.; Singer, Michael J. (1998): “Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence questionnaire”, Presence, 7, 225‐240. Zimmerman, Don H. (1984): "Talk and its occasion: The case of calling the police", D. Shiffrin (ed.), Meaning, form and use in context: Linguistic applications. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 210‐228. Zimmerman, Don H.; Boden, Deirdre (1991): “Structure‐in‐action: An introduction”, D. H. Zimmerman; D. Boden (eds.), Talk and social structure: Studies in ethnomethodology and conversation analysis. Oxford: Polity Press, 3‐21. Zimmerman, Don H. (1992): “The interactional organization of calls for emergency assistance”, P. Drew; J. Heritage (eds.), Talk at work: Interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 419‐469. 71 2.2. Traditional face‐to‐face vs telephone‐mediated communication – with an interpreter Nicoletta Spinolo ‐ University of Bologna, Forlì Campus In this section, we will see in further detail (see § 1.1) how interpreter‐mediated communication over the phone differs from traditional face‐to‐face interpreted‐mediated communication, and how interpreters can learn to cope with and manage such peculiarities. The main difference between interpreter‐mediated telephone communication and face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting is, of course, the lack of visual input and the use of one channel (audio) only. As research work carried out in the SHIFT in Orality partnership11 as well as in previous studies12 has observed, this can generate numerous added difficulties which may be due both to the lack of any input other than the auditory one and to possible acoustic problems, owing to bad lines or noise. This can lead to a series of possible problems that are specific to telephone interpreting and which may affect comprehension, turn management and the interpreting process in general (see § 2.3). More specifically, we will have a look at the different configurations of telephone interpreting and at where and how participants can be located during a call (§ 2.2.1); we will discuss sound quality and how to improve it or cope with poor quality (§ 2.2.2); we will talk about how to make the best use of the equipment (§ 2.2.3) and, lastly, we will give some useful advice on how to manage communication over the phone (§ 2.2.4). 2.2.1. Constellations in telephone interpreting: participant distribution The possible constellations of remote (both telephone and video‐mediated) interpreting have been presented in § 1.1.3. To sum up briefly, there are three main constellations in the location of participants in an interaction interpreted over the phone. Although those basic constellations sum up all the situations occurring in telephone interpreting, some further remarks can be made on the location of participants in telephone interpreting in various communicative contexts. While in traditional face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting all participants in the conversation (primary participants and the interpreter) share the same space, in telephone interpreting they do not; and interpreters may only be in the same place as some of the participants but not all of them. In the first place, as explained in § 1.1.3, interpreter‐mediated telephone conversations can be divided into two main groups: 3‐point interactions, in which all participants in the conversation are in different locations (i.e. constellation 1, § 1.1.3), or 2‐point interactions, in which either the interpreter is located with one of the primary participants or the two primary participants are co‐located while the interpreter is located remotely (i.e. constellation 2, § 1.1.3). Figure 1 shows one possible constellation, a 3‐point telephone interaction in which all participants are located remotely, and connected on the same line. For further details, see SHIFT in Orality Report 2: Remote Technologized Interpreting (Telephone‐Based And Video‐Based Remote Interpreting): Main Features And Shifts With On‐Site Bilateral Interpreting. 12 See, for example, Wadensjö (1999). 11 72 Figure 1. All participants are located remotely Figure 2 shows the second possible constellation, in which two participants (in this case, the operator and the user) are co‐located, while the interpreter is located remotely. Figure 2. Operator and user are located together, while the interpreter is located remotely Figure 3, lastly, shows a third constellation, where one of the primary participants is located with the interpreter, while the other participant is located remotely. 73 Figure 3. Operator and interpreter are located together, while the user is located remotely However, there can be many variations to these two main schemes. Let us start, for example, with the case of telephone interpreting being used by an office (such as a police office, a tourist information office, etc.). In the case of a two‐point call, there will be either the operator and the user on one end of the call and the interpreter on the other, or the interpreter with one of the two primary participants (more likely with the police officer/operator or the tourist office employee/operator) on one end and the other primary participant on the other. Since the setting is an office, it is quite likely that the two co‐located parties will be either sitting at the same table or standing at a desk. In the case of a 3‐point call, the interpreter may be at home, or in the street; the policeman/operator in the office; and the caller anywhere: near a road accident, on the beach, at a railway station. The situation might in some cases be different when telephone interpreting is used in healthcare services, as participant location can present other configurations. For example, 3‐point calls can be used in this setting for follow‐up calls to patients (or emergency calls, as we will explain below), while 2‐point calls can be used in a variety of situations, mainly with the healthcare operator (doctor, nurse, etc.) and the patient co‐located in the hospital or clinic, while the interpreter is located elsewhere. In the case of healthcare services, participant location and position can vary considerably depending on the specific case. The following are some possible examples (although this is by no means an exhaustive list), such as a doctor at the patient’s bed, or examining a patient who may be standing, lying down, sitting or even moving, depending on the type of medical exam. Finally, telephone interpreting can be used in call centres in many different settings (healthcare, public and private services, emergency, etc.). In this case, all interactions will be 3‐point calls. While the operator’s position will be more or less always the same (sitting at a desk, with a headset, probably in front of a computer), the user’s position and location is totally unpredictable: sitting at a desk, walking in the street, in public transport, lying in bed or, in an emergency situation, at the roadside, inside a car, etc. For the sake of simplification, the examples above all describe situations with two primary participants (doctor+patient, operator+user). However, as mentioned in § 1.1 there may be more than two primary 74 participants in the interaction: for instance, a doctor and a nurse interacting with a patient, or a police officer with a user and a user’s relative or friend. It is of primary importance that telephone interpreters be aware of all the possible configurations, in order to be prepared to cope with (and prevent, if possible) any communication problems that may arise due to participant distribution, position and condition. More importantly, it might be useful for interpreters to get a clear idea of the distribution for a specific interaction at the very beginning of it: due to the complete lack of visual input, a good interpreting strategy would be to create a mental image of the scene, in order to be able to manage it more effectively. Knowing where other participants are and what they are doing can help the interpreter understand when to take initiatives in the conversation in order to help participants achieve the goal of the interaction and avoid confusion. For example, an interpreter may produce utterances such as “Madam, could you show the doctor where the pain is by pointing with your finger?” or “Could you please show the operator your documents?” where the interpreter specifies that the patient should show the doctor where it hurts and the user should give the papers to the operator, rather than providing a general request to show where it hurts or give their personal details. Specifying the agency and authorship of utterances may be necessary on the phone to avoid confusion (see § 2.3.5). 2.2.2. Sound quality The first remark that should be made about sound quality is that a telephone interpreter should know that sound quality over the phone will never be comparable to sound quality in the interpreting booth − nor, of course, to that of traditional face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting. Furthermore, sound quality over the phone can be influenced by many non‐strictly technical variables, such as the participants’ location and consequent background noises, their position, their health status, etc. Let us look at a few paradigmatic examples and some good practices to cope with them. Let us start with the example of telephone interpreting being used in an office: if the office is a shared one, there might be background noises such as voices, phones ringing, printers, doors opening and closing and, if the call comes from a call centre, the interpreter will probably also clearly hear the operator typing on the keyboard. At the other end, the user might be in the street with traffic noise in the background, or on the bus, or in a crowded and noisy place. In this case, interpreters can start by asking participants to find, if possible, a quiet spot. If they cannot, interpreters can ask them to speak louder and as close to the microphone as possible. Things might get more complicated in the case of healthcare and emergency services, in which one of the users may be lying down, in an uncomfortable position, and in poor health conditions, and therefore with a feeble voice. Furthermore, in an emergency (health, police, fire…), they may be scared, worried (see § 2.3.2), or feeling very bad, and this is very likely to influence their voice quality. In this case, a strategy can be that of simplifying the conversation by asking as many yes/no questions as possible, so as to reduce the user’s turn‐at‐talk to the essential and get the information through. 2.2.3. Equipment and system design (telephone management) The quality and set‐up management of the equipment is extremely important for a successful telephone interpreting session. On the primary participant’s side, little control is possible over the equipment, but the interpreter can, if necessary (especially in the case of sound issues, described in § 2.2.2), ask participants to speak louder or closer to the telephone. In the case of a 3‐point call, each participant will be using their own device while, in the case of a 2‐point one, the two co‐located participants might either be using the 75 same phone and exchange it in turns, or use a speakerphone or share a headset13. Ideally, all participants in the conversation should be able to hear everything, just as they do in traditional face‐ to‐face interpreter‐mediated interactions; therefore, using a speakerphone or sharing a headset are a first‐choice option, whenever possible. In the case of a very noisy environment, headsets should be preferred to speakerphones. While, as explained above, interpreters have little control over the users’ equipment, there are many choices they can make in relation to their own set‐up, in order to work as comfortably as possible. If they work from a call centre, they are likely to have all the necessary equipment at hand (headset, computer, notebook). When working from home or from her/his own office, the first thing a telephone interpreter should do is to find a quiet spot to work in. Ideally, an office or study where s/he can sit comfortably at a table, with paper and pens at hand and, even better, a computer for last‐minute checks on online resources (glossaries, dictionaries, search engines). Obviously, s/he also needs to make sure that there is a good and fast connection in the chosen spot. Secondly, given the importance of being able to take notes during remote interpreting (§1.1.9), it is advisable to have both hands free when interpreting; the use of a headset is therefore strongly recommended. Finally, attention should be paid to reducing the interpreter’s own background noise to a minimum, by trying to type and move pages “delicately” and as far as possible from the microphone. In order to reduce background noises both in the input and in the output, it might be useful to use noise‐ cancelling headsets. These headsets, originally designed to be used especially in call‐centres, reduce both background noises in the sound input (that is, the background noises coming from the primary participants) and in the output (that is, the interpreter’s background noises coming through the microphone). 2.2.4. Communication management In this final paragraph, we will present a few useful indications for managing communication in telephone interpreting before starting the conversation or at the very beginning, during the conversation and at the end of it. BEFORE STARTING OR AT THE BEGINNING OF THE CONVERSATION: The first step for a successful management of the interaction is to have a clear idea of the configuration (see §2.2.1) of the call; if this is not made clear by primary participants during a short briefing (§ 2.3.1) or at the beginning of the conversation, the interpreter should start whenever possible by asking specifically where participants are located and how they are positioned. The following step would then be to try and visualise the situation in one’s mind; visualisation is very useful in preventing possible problems in the communication, especially when this involves the use of objects or artefacts or the management of comprehension problems (see §2.3.6). DURING THE CONVERSATION: A fundamental strategy for conversation management, in the absence of visual clues, is that of marking conversational turns by explicitly attracting the attention of the primary participants. Due to the remoteness of the conversation and to the participants being located in different environments, not sharing the same space and not seeing each other, they are likely to get distracted when they are Dualia SL has even designed and patented a “Biauricular”, a headset designed specifically for telephone interpreting. It is longer than a standard one and has a microphone on each side, so that the two users who share it can sit (or lie down) comfortably and speak into their own microphone. 13 76 not directly involved in a conversational turn (i.e., when their turn is being delivered to the other participant or when the other participant is talking to the interpreter). Since the interpreter cannot look at one participant or the other to signal conversational turns, it might be useful to “address” the participants before starting a delivery in their direction (e.g.: “Sir”, “Madam”, “Doctor”, “Mr. Sawyer”, “Ms. Lee”, etc). Another useful strategy for conversation management during the interaction is the description of actions; the interpreter should always bear in mind that participants either cannot see each other at all or only some of them can; therefore, it is useful to ask them to describe any action that they are performing or are about to perform (e.g. “I am going to look into the patient’s ear”, or “the user has just written down their personal details”, etc.). In the case of problems with sound quality (see § 2.3.3), a useful strategy is that of keeping the interaction as simple as possible, by asking participants to privilege yes/no questions and short conversational turns whenever possible, or asking them to speak louder and more slowly. AT THE END OF THE CONVERSATION When the conversation is about to end, the interpreter should make sure that the communication channel is being closed with both sides, and that primary participants have no more questions, doubts or things to say (see § 2.3.9). Once the call is over (or regularly, e.g. once a month, or once a week), it would be very important to have a debriefing with the client and/or the service provider (telephone interpreting company) to discuss any technical issues or any other communication issues that might require clarification, or the adoption/update of a protocol for the interpreters. Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ What are the possible configurations of telephone interpreting? What are the specific difficulties of each different configuration? How can interpreters cope with possible issues with sound quality? How should the interpreters set up their own equipment? What should a telephone interpreter bear in mind before, during and after an interaction? Recommended readings González Rodríguez, María Jesús; Spinolo, Nicoletta (2017): “Telephonic dialogue interpreting: a short teaching course”, L. Cirillo; N. S. A. Niemants (eds.), Teaching Dialogue Interpreting. Research‐based proposals for higher education. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Kelly, Nataly (2007): Telephone interpreting: a comprehensive guide to the profession. Bloomington: Trafford Publishing. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction”, The Translator, Special Issue. Dialogue Interpreting, 5 (2), 247‐264. https://www.stjerome.co.uk/tsa/abstract/121/Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction] 77 References Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone Interpreting and the Synchronization of Talk in Social Interaction”. The Translator, 5, 2: 247‐264. Vv.Aa. (2017): Report 2: Remote Technologized Interpreting (Telephone‐Based And Video‐Based Remote Interpreting): Main Features And Shifts With On‐Site Bilateral Interpreting. https://www.shiftinorality.eu/en/resources] 78 2.3 Challenges and Solutions: Some Paradigmatic Examples Amalia Amato – University of Bologna, Forlì Campus 2.3.1 Introduction This section attempts to provide an overview of the most frequently encountered challenges when interpreting on the phone in three different settings: healthcare, police and tourism.14 A number of examples will be discussed using transcriptions15 of interpreter‐mediated telephone interactions. All the calls are simulations made by a telephone interpreting company and reflect real life situations.16 Interpreters were not aware that it was a simulation and they did not know that they would be assessed on the basis of the recording. The roles of service users and providers on the phone were played by actors and interpreters with experience in this interpreting mode. The main issues related to telephone interpreting that will be discussed here include: different opening sequences (§ 2.3.2); sound quality and practical tips about poor sound conditions (§ 2.3.3); management of turns by the interpreter (§ 2.3.4); possible problems deriving from references to primary participants (§ 2.3.5); potential triggers of comprehension and interpreting problems (§ 2.3.6 and 2.3.7); noticing and responding to primary participants’ relevant behaviour (§ 2.3.8); different closing sequences (§ 2.3.9). Some general practical tips are provided at the end. 2.3.2 Opening(s) Monolingual service calls have been extensively studied and authors generally agree on a specific structure for this particular type of interaction (Schegloff 1979 and 2002; ten Have 2002; Zorzi and Monzoni 2003; Varcasia 2013): 1. Pre‐opening: the phone rings and the operator/service dispatcher opens a communication channel; 2. Opening/identification/recognition: the institution or service receiving the call answers the phone and self‐identifies, the caller recognises that s/he has reached the desired service or institution; 3. Request by the caller for a service (for instance an ambulance in the case of an emergency); Our data set comprises 15 health care service calls, 4 calls to the police and 6 tourist service calls. Transcription conventions are derived from conversation analysis (Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson 1978) and also used by Varcasia (2013) in her book on business and service telephone conversations. ?: a rising vocal pitch or intonation; Bold: emphasis; CAPITAL: loud voice, shouting; Lo:ng: stretched sounds; °quiet°: words spoken in a low voice; >speed‐up<: increased speed of delivery; <speed‐down>: decreased speed of delivery; [talk]: square brackets indicate overlapping talk; =: latching, contiguous utterances or continuation of the same utterance in the next line; (.): micro pause, up to 1 second; (2.0): length of pause in approximate seconds; ((cough)): sound or feature of talk not easily transcribable; xxx: inaudible or doubts about hearing by the transcriber; →: analyst’s signal of a significant line; wor‐: truncated word; /: truncated utterance; A: service provider (who can be the calling or called party); B: service user (who can be the calling or called party): I: interpreter. Transcriptions reflect the way words were pronounced. Mistakes in pronunciation or grammar are left uncorrected in the transcript. 16 The data set presented in this study was provided by DUALIA Teletraducciones, a telephone interpreting company based in Mondragón (Basque Country, Spain). It was set up in 2003 to respond to the needs of Spanish companies having increasingly frequent contacts with foreign business partners. The company then expanded from the business sector into the health care, tourism and social services sectors. Its activity can be broken down as follows: health care 48%, tourism and social services 35%, and corporate 17% (http://www.dualia.es). Data referring to 2016. 14 15 79 4. Interview by the operator of the service or institution who asks a series of questions to ascertain how and whether to respond to the caller’s request; 5. Response to the request presented by the caller, and 6. Closing: usually expressions of thanks and farewells. The data we are going to discuss here differ from monolingual service calls in many respects. To begin with openings, in calls involving an interpreter there is an additional identification and recognition phase (2) occurring between the operator and the interpreter. The operator in this case acts as a service user who requires an interpreting service, while the interpreter is the service provider who self‐identifies. During the opening stage there can also be another “specialised” activity carried out by the two parties on the phone: checking that the operator has called the interpreter for the right language, as shown in example 1 below taken from a call to El Prado museum in Madrid by an Italian teacher who wants to organise a trip to Madrid for her students. Example 1 In an “ideal” world the opening should also contain a short briefing, as in example 2, which shows good practice. This call is made by a doctor who wants to phone a leukemic patient at home to check her health conditions and her compliance with the prescribed palliative care treatment. In this case the doctor knows everything about the case at hand while the interpreter does not. Example 2 80 In turn 2 the doctor informs the interpreter about the call she is about to make; she mentions the name of the healthcare institution and her own name, she specifies the department she is calling from and informs the interpreter that it has to do with a case of leukaemia. The doctor also tells the interpreter who is going to answer the phone (the patient’s husband), the patient’s name and the reason for the call. In short, the doctor is actually giving the interpreter an exhaustive briefing, explaining the reason for the call, the type of pathology that will be discussed, and even specifying who will answer the phone. This allows the interpreter to anticipate a call that will assess the health conditions of a leukemic patient and discuss palliative care. The interpreter can therefore expect that specific medical questions will be asked, which will contain technical medical terminology and enquiries about drugs, probably including their names and doses. While the interpreter was completely “unprepared” before the telephone rang, she can now anticipate the content of the conversation and prepare to take notes, write the names of drugs and other relevant information. Conversely, in example 3 below the doctor is not able to provide the interpreter with any information, so the interpreter takes the initiative and offers to ask the necessary questions on her behalf. The doctor accepts this offer, as a result of which the questions in this case will follow a different “flow”: instead of going from the doctor to the interpreter and then to the caller, they will go directly from the interpreter to the caller. In monolingual service calls the interview is carried out by the operator/service dispatcher, who asks a series of questions to understand how and whether to respond to the caller’s request (see § 2.3.2). In example 3 below the opening phase is used by the service provider and the interpreter to agree about how to proceed. It is a good example of cooperation between the doctor and the interpreter, who agree about how to conduct the interview of the caller; it also shows that the doctor trusts the interpreter ‐ an essential element for the success of interpreter‐mediated communication. Example 3 81 Not all openings are smooth and easy to manage, however. In the sequence below, in example 4, the operator has just put an incoming call through to the interpreter. A mother is calling the police because she has lost her 7‐year old child in a foreign country of which she does not speak the language, which may be an additional cause of distress. Her turn 7 opens with a request for help: “you have to help me”. Later in the same turn ‐ after saying the name of the town she finds herself in and briefly providing the reason for the call ‐ she repeats her request for help twice in a highly emotional tone: “you have to help me” and ”please give me a hand”. The interpreter seems to be overwhelmed by the rapid, fragmented talk of the mother and fails to take note of the child’s age. Before translating the request for the operator she enquires about the child’s age to make sure she gets it right and since the mother is very nervous, she produces a number of overlaps with the interpreter, making it difficult for the interpreter to get the child’s age right. To try and create some order in the conversation, in turn 13 the interpreter tells the mother to hold on while she talks to the operator. This is a clear signalling of turn allocation: the interpreter informs the mother that she is going to take the next turn and translate the reason for the call and that the mother must wait before talking again. The interpreter’s contribution to turn allocation will also be discussed in § 2.3.4 and in 3.3.3. Example 4 82 In this section we briefly saw how different openings can be. Example 1 shows a “routine” opening where the operator only checks the language of the interpreter before starting a three party conversation on the phone; example 2 shows an “ideal” opening where the operator accurately briefs the interpreter about the content of the call; example 3 shows an opening where the operator and the interpreter agree about how to proceed; and example 4 shows a particularly stressful opening with the fragmented narrative of a caller who repeatedly asks for help, but does not give a consistent version of events (what, when, where and who) or precise indications of her whereabouts (Valencia is a very generic reference) and when and how the child went missing. 2.3.3 Sound quality/practical tips The following excerpts illustrate two of the many comprehension problems that can be generated by poor sound quality. When the equipment does not work properly, when it is hard to hear what the other parties are saying on the phone or when there are background noises, the interpreter’s work can become extremely exhausting and frustrating. Companies hiring interpreters may have a protocol for poor sound problems stating that the interpreter should inform the other parties about sound problems, but it may not allow the interpreter to discontinue the service if the sound quality is poor. This is the case in our data: basically, the problem can be signalled by the interpreter, but s/he cannot decide to bring the call to a close. The implication is that the interpreter should continue translating unless the other parties decide to close the call because they cannot hear. 83 Example 5 below shows an instance of poor sound conditions due to a constant echo that makes it difficult to hear what the service user is saying. The interpreter’s work becomes really hard and, yet, he does not inform the other parties about the problem. Example 5 As the sequence above shows, it takes seven turns before the reason for the call is at least partially grasped by the interpreter. Indeed, in turn 10 the interpreter shows he has understood that the caller wants a vaccination appointment, but we do not know if the interpreter has heard that the vaccination appointment is for the caller’s daughter or what kind of vaccination the caller is talking about. This is not due to the interpreter’s poor knowledge of English, but to a constant echo that makes the acoustic conditions extremely difficult, negatively impacting communication. In an emergency call this type of sound problem could jeopardise the prompt and timely provision of the emergency service. Example 6 Excerpt 6 above is an example of good practice and shows a possible solution for poor sound quality. The interpreter signals at the beginning of the call that she cannot hear properly and asks the operator to speak louder. In example 5 the interpreter could have asked the operator to call again to try and have a better line instead of struggling to hear what was being said and having to ask again and again the reason for the call (turns 6, 8 and 10). Another aspect that requires management by the interpreter is turn allocation and we shall discuss this in the next section. 84 2.3.4 Turns In our data there are no instances of the interpreter trying to regulate the length of the speaker’s turns,17 but there are instances of coordination of turn‐taking by the interpreter. We saw one instance in example 4 (§ 2.3.2), where it was necessary for the interpreter to ask the mother to stop talking and hold on while the interpreter was translating what had been said to the operator. In general, it is difficult for speakers who do not see each other to organise turn‐taking and this generates an additional need for the telephone interpreter to coordinate turn‐taking (Oviatt & Cohen 1992, Wadensjö 1999). It is the lack of visual input that makes turn‐taking more difficult. Theoretically, the operator should be used to working with an interpreter and should know that there are dyadic exchanges between the interpreter and the caller during which s/he has to remain silent. The caller, on the other hand, may not be used to telephone interpreting and in these cases the interpreter must signal to the caller that s/he is going to translate what has been said to the operator. Example 7 Example 7 is taken from a call where a diabetic patient asks for an ambulance because he believes he has eaten something harmful for him. In turn 18 the interpreter asks the caller to hold on a moment and then switches language and addresses the operator in Spanish. In our data this is a recurring pattern of turn allocation by the interpreter: s/he signals to one of the speakers in her/his language that s/he needs to talk to the other speaker and asks him/her to hold on until the exchange with the other speaker has been completed before another exchange can start. In this way, the interpreter “regulates” the communication flow, preventing overlapping talk as far as possible. Here, the interpreter also speeds up the collection of personal details by asking the caller, who had only given his first name, to give his full name. This initiative is not without a “mandate”: the protocol of this telephone interpreting company states that interpreters can ask callers “routine” questions in order to collect their personal details or their healthcare card number when they are needed to provide the service. Again this is different from a monolingual service call where the operator/service dispatcher conducts the interview with the caller. 2.3.5 References to primary participants All examples discussed so far reveal dyadic interactions (Gavioli 2012) ‐ at least in some points ‐ rather than triadic interactions (Mason 2001, Wadensjö 1998): the interpreter talks to one party at a time in one language and then puts that party on hold while s/he talks to the other and translates what has been said, as in example 8 below (taken from the same call as example 7). Example 8 This activity was found in face‐to‐face medical and TV interpreting (Amato 2012; Straniero Sergio 2007; Amato and Mack 2016) 17 85 The interpreter has just asked the age and full name of the caller, talking directly to him in a dyadic sequence and using a formal expression of address (“sir”), and in turn 18 she wants to report these personal details to the operator: s/he puts the caller on hold and switches to the other language using indirect reported speech (“he is saying that…”) to present the information to the operator. In this way, there is no possibility of misunderstanding who said what: the caller said his name and his age, he is the source of information and the interpreter is just transferring it to the operator in another language; s/he has no authorship and makes this clear. The use of reported speech (both direct and indirect) seems to be effective on the phone, especially as it prevents misunderstandings and confusion, as will be seen in example 15 (§ 2.3.8). 2.3.6 Comprehension problems Proper names have been frequently identified as a challenge for interpreters and translators. There is a general consensus that rendering names is potentially problematic for interpreters (see among others Gile 1984 and 1995; Ballard 2001; Viezzi 2004; Amato and Mack 2011). Firstly, they are culture‐ bound elements that often cannot be found in the target culture and language, and, secondly, they often have to be reproduced exactly as pronounced by the foreign language speaker, without any possibility for the interpreter to process this piece of information at a semantic level in order to find its meaning and a way to render it in another language. Unlike in simultaneous conference interpreting, however, in a dialogue interpreting setting the interpreter often has direct access to the speakers. This situational factor represents a “resource” that can be used for different purposes, such as asking for clarifications, repetitions and explanations. Another possible use of this “resource” is asking a speaker to spell a proper name, to pronounce it slowly and clearly or in a loud voice, as in example 9 below, which is an example of good practice adopted by the interpreter. Example 9 In turn 33 the interpreter asks the caller to “say his name out loud”. The result is that the name is also heard by the operator (since this is a three‐party telephone conversation) and so the interpreter does 86 not have to reproduce it for the operator. For the interpreter to be able to take such an initiative, s/he must not feel s/he is in a situation of “communicative uncertainty”, but must feel self‐confident. Being aware of one’s interpreting skills reduces uncertainty about the ability to manage a “problem trigger” and prevents the interpreter from losing confidence in her/his abilities because s/he cannot get a proper name on the phone the first time it is pronounced by a foreign speaker. In example 10 the interpreter is not intimidated by the names of drugs (mis)pronounced by the husband of a lady in palliative care which she has to reproduce accurately for the doctor. When she hears the name of the first drug, she immediately asks for the spelling to make sure she gets the name right. Example 10 As mentioned at the beginning of this section, proper names, including geographical ones, can also be difficult to understand or recognise and therefore render accurately. Once more, this is a potential problem that can be solved if the interpreter adopts the appropriate discourse initiatives. In example 11 the interpreter’s activity in this emergency call is crucial to understanding the location of the caller who is requesting an ambulance. Example 11 87 The caller’s pronunciation in line 26 makes it difficult for the interpreter to understand a crucial piece of information in order for the operator to send an ambulance. In turn 27 the interpreter reproduces the name of the place mentioned by the caller, but apparently the name does not correspond to any geographical location, as shown in turns 29 and 30 where the interpreter asks the operator if he has ever heard of this place, but he has not. The interpreter reacts by asking the caller to tell her the name of the city from which she is calling. This initiative is successful, because after identifying the city with the interpreter’s help (Málaga), the operator has an intuition about the geographical name the lady wants to communicate and the lady in turn 38 confirms that the operator has identified the correct geographical location. This section has illustrated some of the problems that can arise when there is specific information to convey: proper names, such as the names of places and drugs, which can be mispronounced, but must be accurately conveyed by the interpreter in order to achieve the goal of the call. The analysis of data has shown that there are resources available and accessible to the interpreter to manage and solve such problems, but the interpreter must be aware of them and be self‐confident enough to take the initiative and ask the other participants to help her/him in transmitting information correctly, for instance by asking the caller to speak louder or to spell the name of a drug. 2.3.7 Interpreting problems As in monolingual communication, there can be misunderstandings in interpreter‐mediated communication that do not necessarily result from comprehension problems or poor sound quality. For instance, cultural differences between two speakers may generate interpreting problems. It is highly recommended that telephone interpreters, like all interpreters in general, have sound socio‐ cultural competence in all the languages they work with. Lack of knowledge about certain religious aspects, for example, may create interpreting problems (Aronson Fontes, 2009). Incorrect assumptions about minor details may also trigger misunderstandings, however, as shown in example 12 below. Example 12 88 This is the same call to the police we discussed in § 2.3.2. The mother of the lost child does not mention whether her mobile phone is Italian or Spanish, but since the number starts with 34, which is the country code for Spain, the interpreter assumes it is a Spanish number and gives this information to the operator (turn 51): “it is a Spanish number”. When she translates the number to the operator, however, she realises a digit is missing and she checks the number with the mother again. After checking, the interpreter realises that there is still a number missing and tells the mother. The interpreter is still assuming that the caller’s phone number is a Spanish one. It is the mother who realises there is a misunderstanding and tells the interpreter that her phone number is Italian and that it is necessary to add the country code for Italy to call it, as shown in example 13 below. Example 13 89 In this case the interpreter both generated and solved the problem, but transferring the caller’s phone number to the operator took more turns and time than it should have done. Moreover, had the interpreter not noticed her own mistake, it would not have been possible to get in touch with the caller later on, causing even more distress for this mother and a delay in the provision of the service. In example 14 confusion is generated by a) a literal translation of a reference to the tourist office (“we”) and b) the fact that the interpreter is working in a remote mode and both the caller and the operator are in different places. Example 14 90 Example 14 above shows that maintaining the same form of reference as the original speaker without reported speech may not be the most felicitous choice for the interpreter to make. The use of the pronoun “we” can be found in turn 6 where the interpreter translates literally what the tourist office operator says (”… we are in in calle Reyes Huertas…”). When the caller asks for confirmation of the name of the street in turn 9, the interpreter does not confirm it and answers saying “this is where we are no‐ where you are now”. By means of a self‐repair (see § 1.1.6) the interpreter replaces “we” with “you” and generates confusion in the caller, who asks for clarification: “Where I am now or where the tourist information office is?”. It is not clear to the caller whether the interpreter wants to know where the tourist office is or where she is calling from. It seems that being on the phone, in a remote location, makes the interpreter feel disoriented. In turn 12 the interpreter asks the tourist office operator where the lady should go and where the operator is, and seems to have forgotten that she just gave the caller the address of the tourist office. In turn (14) the interpreter realises that she is caught in a sort of self‐ generated misunderstanding and apologises. Having to work without seeing the other speakers, who may be in two different locations, seems in this case to generate a cognitive overload for the interpreter (Braun 2015). Moreover, the use of “we” by the operator referring to the tourist office is misleading for the interpreter and consequently for the caller. Operators/service dispatchers who work with interpreters on the phone should be made aware that misunderstandings may arise from the way they use references and personal pronouns. On the other hand, interpreters should be advised always to make clear who says what in their renderings in order to avoid confusion (see also § 2.3.5 and 3.3.4). Both the collection of information and its transfer to the operator/service dispatcher require great attention and accuracy on the part of the interpreter. In this section we saw how easily 91 misunderstandings can arise merely by neglecting apparently minor details. We also saw how they can be solved by double checking information, as in example 13. Having access to the primary speakers is an invaluable resource to solve potential interpreting problems. On the other hand, the fact that the participants in the interaction are on the phone and are often located in different places may be a source of confusion, as we saw in the last excerpt. The lack of “physical presence” may generate cognitive overload for interpreters, especially when the use of pronouns by the caller and operator is not consistent. Misunderstandings may also be generated by the interpreter her/himself when s/he mixes the use of direct and reported speech modes during the same call, as in example 14 (reported speech in turn 4 and direct speech in turn 6). 2.3.8 Noticing and responding to primary participants' needs/relevant behaviours Over the phone it is impossible to see the other parties’ facial expressions or other non‐verbal behaviour. Tone of voice, laughing, crying, whispering or shouting can, however, provide the interpreter with useful information to manage the call at hand and should not, therefore, go unnoticed (see § 1.2). In the following sections two different examples will show that interpreters may have to deal with 1) disagreement between the service provider and the service user, and 2) the distress of a caller in an emergency situation. 2.3.8.1 Managing disagreement The following example 15 (parts a,b and c) is taken from a call during which the operator tells the caller he cannot have an appointment with the nurse at that moment. To make this example more readable, it was split into three parts followed by a short discussion. Example 15 Part A In the sequence before turn 97 the caller is informed that the health service will call the medical centre on his behalf and set a date for him to see the nurse. The caller/patient is not happy at all as turn 97 shows. He complains because he wants an appointment immediately. For him the matter is urgent and he does not want to wait to be called back. The interpreter does not immediately pass this complaint on to the health centre operator and instead tries to explain the procedure. She then asks the caller if he thinks this is an emergency in order to make sure that she is not dismissing an urgent case requiring immediate medical assistance (turn 98). In the following turn the caller answers by repeating his complaint about the procedure and insisting that he needs to see the nurse as soon as 92 possible. He clearly expresses disagreement about the way this service is provided. The interpreter in turn 100 reports to the operator that it is an emergency and asks him what answer she should give. Part B In 101 the operator replies in an annoyed tone that this is the procedure. The interpreter ‐ in a calm tone ‐ once again explains to the caller that the centre cannot do anything else (102). The caller seems not to insist that it is an emergency and agrees to wait on condition that the centre calls him as soon as possible and does not forget his request for an appointment. The mood of the encounter changes in the closing with the operator’s reassurance that the centre will call back as soon as possible, translated by the interpreter in a summarised rendition. Part C The patient finally expresses satisfaction with the service in turn 107 (“OK thank you lovely thank you very much”) and the call closes with expressions of thanks. In this case the interpreter contributed to making the call successful in terms of “customer satisfaction” and in managing disagreement. The decision not to dismiss the complaint and to enquire about a possible emergency was crucial to making the patient feel that due attention was being paid to his needs (and avoiding a possible wrong evaluation of the urgency of the situation). At the closing 93 of the call the patient is happy because his request to be called as soon as possible was accepted and the operator thanks the interpreter in a grateful tone of voice (turn 110). 2.3.8.2 Managing emotions Emergency calls in particular can be emotion‐ridden, as we saw in § 2.3.2 in the excerpt taken from the opening of a call by a mother who has lost her child. The communicative intent of an emergency call is not to tell a complete story about one’s recent personal experience, but to elicit a response. As Imbens‐Bailey and McCabe state in their study on emergency 911 calls in the United States: the descriptions of events in an emergency call are constrained by their dual functions of maximizing the speedy transfer of vital information while minimizing the inclusion of superfluous detail. It is this trade‐off between concerns such as efficiency and the urge to narrate human experience that may contribute to an inherent communicative tension in placing a 911 call. (2000: 289) This is even more evident when the incident concerns the caller directly, as in the case of the mother who has lost her child. Example 16 94 In example 16 the operator and the interpreter try to obtain precise information from the mother about where she lost the child, but she is in distress and gives a short report of what she and her husband were doing when the child disappeared on a beach in Valencia instead. In turn 19 the operator asks for specification of which beach in Valencia and the mother tries to say a name, but she is unsure and nervous, concluding at the end of turn 22 that she does not know. The interpreter does not insist with the same question and repeats the name she heard to the operator, who recognises it. The interpreter remained calm despite the stressful situation and helped identify the place where the child went missing. Had she insisted that the mother provide the exact name of the beach for her son to be found, she could have worsened the mother’s emotional state and this would not have contributed to collecting the necessary information. In this section we saw that noticing relevant (verbal or paralinguistic) behaviour of participants is essential to successfully interpret a call, especially when it comes to emergencies. In the first excerpt (example 15) the fact that the interpreter did not dismiss a caller’s request/complaint and did not convey the annoyed tone of the operator was crucial to the success of the call. Undoubtedly, this implied some decision‐making skills on the part of the interpreter: she decided to report the patient’s concern and not to convey the operator’s annoyance. In short, the interpreter focused on what she perceived as being relevant to achieving the ultimate goal of the call: to provide an appropriate reply to the caller’s request. In example 16 the interpreter shows sympathy and understanding for the mother in distress and rather than repeating the question about her precise location in Valencia ‐ which could have made the mother even more stressed – the interpreter tried to do her best with the imprecise information she had obtained, helping the operator to identify the exact location. 2.3.9 Closings In an interpreter‐mediated service call the three parties are usually involved in the closing, as in example 17 below. Example 17 The structure of closing in the example above is the most frequent in our data. There is a short exchange of expressions of gratitude and farewells between the three parties involved. Sometimes the interpreter openly signals that her task is over, as in example 18 below: Example 18 95 In turn 108 the interpreter confirms to the operator that she has translated what he said and reassures him by adding “everything has been arranged” to signal that the call can be ended. Along the same lines, in another case the interpreter checks whether the operator needs to continue the conversation before hanging up. Example 19 In another case in our data the operator “books” the interpreter for a call later before ending the conversation. Example 20 96 As we saw, in the case of emergency calls openings can be hectic and emotionally charged whereas, from our data, it seems that closings occur smoothly and reveal satisfaction on the part of all parties. The content of the closing in interpreted service calls is very similar to that in monolingual calls since it contains farewells and expressions of appreciation from the parties involved, except for a few cases in which the interpreter checks whether the operator needs something else (not the caller!) or when the operator informs the interpreter that s/he will need assistance again in a while. It is interesting to note that in the closing more attention is paid by interpreters to the needs of the operators than to those of the callers. This is probably due to the fact that the expression of gratitude from the caller ‐ once a response has been given to her/his request ‐ is perceived by the interpreter as a closing signal indicating that the user does not need further help. 2.3.10 Some practical tips In this final section we would like to offer some basic advice that may help you to successfully conduct over‐the‐phone interpreting. A general piece of advice that applies to all kinds of calls is to try not to make assumptions about people, events or even small details, and never take anything for granted. Where necessary, it is better to ask for repetition than to convey incorrect or misleading information. In order to give some sort of “order” to these tips, a timeline is used starting from before the call to the end of the call. Before the call make sure you are: ‐ Wearing a headset with a microphone so that your hands are free to write. ‐ Equipped with paper and pen before you start interpreting. In short, get ready to receive the call in the best possible acoustic conditions (headset) and be prepared to write down notes (paper and pen). At the beginning of the call it is advisable to: ‐ Ask the operator/doctor/service dispatcher to give you a short briefing before putting you through to the caller. ‐ Signal acoustic/poor sound problems to the operator/doctor/service dispatcher and ask them to call again if necessary. ‐ Ask the operator/doctor/service dispatcher to introduce yourself or to let you introduce yourself. ‐ Agree with the operator/doctor/service dispatcher about how to proceed during the call. This will help you anticipate what kind of call you are going to be dealing with, i.e. healthcare, health emergency, police, business etc. Since the only input channel you have is the sound, do not hesitate 97 to signal sound problems at the beginning of the call so that the operator/doctor/service dispatcher can call you back and hopefully have a better line. Introducing yourself to the caller and not only to the operator helps rapport building with the caller/service user. Check with the operator/doctor/service dispatcher how they want to proceed: they may tell you to take initiatives ‐ i.e. ask the caller routine questions directly ‐ or not to take any initiatives and let them conduct the call. During the call: ‐ Kindly ask the other parties to pronounce names slowly and clearly and to spell them if necessary. ‐ Kindly signal when you are going to interpret so that no one else speaks while you are interpreting. ‐ Kindly signal to the parties when they can speak in order to avoid overlapping talk. ‐ Avoid using the first person unless you are talking for yourself (as the interpreter), as it may generate confusion on the phone. ‐ Try to prevent misunderstandings by making it clear who is saying what or by using reported speech. Since you have access to the speakers, even if only on the phone, it is advisable to use this resource to optimise your performance. Names of people, places, drugs and so on are difficult to grasp on the phone, so rather than trying to guess or providing wrong information to the parties, ask them to spell names, or repeat them in a loud, clear voice. Moreover, it is more difficult to have an orderly three‐ party conversation over the phone because there are no visual cues to help you anticipate who will talk next. Overlapping talk is a problem when interpreting turn by turn because two turns can become inaudible or difficult to understand. Do not hesitate to act as “speech traffic controller” by signalling to the parties when you are going to translate, or by politely asking one party to wait before speaking while you talk to the other party. To avoid misunderstandings always try to make clear who said what by using indirect speech or by referring to the party who produced the utterance when interpreting. Points for discussion ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ What can happen during an interpreter‐mediated telephone opening? Can you describe two or three types of possible different openings in an interpreter‐mediated service call? Can you mention one potential problem‐trigger for interpreters on the phone? How would you prevent/solve it? How can you prevent overlapping talk? What can you do as an interpreter when you have a bad line or poor sound conditions? What would you do if you did not understand something? Please also explain why and how you would do it. What do you think is an appropriate behaviour for an interpreter when the caller is in an emotional state? 98 Recommended readings Kelly, Nataly (2007): Telephone Interpreting: A Comprehensive Guide to the Profession. Trafford Publishing. Fernández Pérez, María Magdalena (2015): “Propuestas de ejercicios de simulación para la didáctica de la interpretación telefónica”, MonTi: Monografías de Traducción e Interpretación, 2, 259‐279. Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2005): “Remote Interpreting: Issues of Multi‐Sensory Integration in a Multilingual Task”, Meta, 50(2), 727–738. 99 References Amato, Amalia (2012): L'interprete nel contesto medico. BOLOGNA: Clueb. Amato, Amalia; Mack, Gabriele (2011): “Interpreting the Oscar Night on Italian TV: An interpreter’s nightmare?”, C. Falbo (ed.), The Interpreter’s Newsletter, Television Interpreting, 11, 37‐60. Amato, Amalia; Mack, Gabriele (2016): “Sovrapposizini sovrapponibili: iI contributo dell’interprete all’ordine conversazionale nelle interazioni faccia a faccia in ambito medico e televisivo”, F. Gatta (ed.), Parlare insieme – Studi per Daniela Zorzi. Bologna: Bonimia University Press, 309‐333. Aronson Fontes, Lisa (2009): Interviewing clients across cultures. New York/London: The Giulford Press. Ballard, Michel (2001): Les noms propres en traduction: anglais – français. Paris: Ophrys. Braun, Sabine (2015): “Remote interpreting”. H. Mikkelson; E. R. Jourdenais (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. ten Have, Paul (2002): “Comparing telephone call openings: Theoretical and methodological reflections”, L. Kang Kwong; T. S Pavlidou (eds.), Telephone Calls: Unity and diversity in conversational structure across languages and cultures. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 233‐248. Gavioli, Laura ( 2012 ): “Minimal responses in interpreter‐mediated medical talk”, C. Baraldi; L. Gavioli (eds.), Coordinating participation in dialogue interpreting. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 202‐227. Gile, Daniel (1984): “Les noms propres en interprétation simultanée”, Multilingua, 3 (2), 79‐85. Gile, Daniel (1995): Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Imbens‐Bailey, Alison; McCabe, Alyssa (2000): “The discourse of ditress: a narrative analysis of emergency calls to 911”, Language & Communication, 20, 275‐296. Mason, Ian (2001): Triadic Exchanges. Studies in Dialogue Interpreting. Manchester: St Jerome. Oviatt, Sharon; Cohen, Philip R. (1992): “Spoken language in interpreted telephone dialogues”, Computer Speech and Language, 6, 277‐302. Schegloff, Emmanuel A. (1979): “Identification and recognition in telephone conversation openings”, G. Psathas (ed.), Everyday language: studies in ethnomethodology. New York: Irvington, 23‐78. Schegloff, Emmanuel A. (2002): “Reflections on research on telephone conversation: Issues of cross‐ cultural scope and scholarly exchange, interactional import and consequences”, L. Kang Kwong; T.S. Pavlidou (eds.), Telephone Calls: Unity and diversity in conversational structure across languages and cultures. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 249‐281. Straniero Sergio, Francesco (2007): Talkshow Interpreting. La mediazione linguistica nella conversazione spettacolo. Trieste: EUT. Varcasia, Cecilia (2013): Business and service telephone conversations: An investigation of British English, German and Italian encounters. Macmillan Palgrave: New York. Viezzi, Maurizio (2004). Denominazioni proprie e traduzione. Milano: LED. Zorzi, Daniela; Monzoni, Chiara (2003): “Le telefonate d’emergenza: un confronto fra l’italiano e l’inglese”, E. M. Thüne; S. Leonardi (eds.), Telefonare in diverse lingue: organizzazione sequenziale, routine e rituali in telefonate di servizio, di emergenza e fatiche. Milano: Franco Angeli, 163‐181. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1998): Interpreting as interaction. London/New York: Addison Wesley Longman. 100 Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction”, The Translator, Special Issue. Dialogue Interpreting, 5 (2), 247‐264. https://www.stjerome.co.uk/tsa/abstract/121/Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction] 101 102 3 Video‐mediated interpreting 103 Video‐mediated interpreting Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey Over the past two decades, videoconferencing (VC) has slowly established itself as a tool for verbal and visual interaction in real time, between two or more sites. The evolution of VC technologies has not only created ample opportunities for distance communication but has also led to alternative ways for delivering interpreting services. To appreciate the challenges that VC creates for interpreting, it is necessary to develop an understanding of the specific characteristics of VC itself. Section 3.1 addresses this need by giving an overview of the current practice of, and research into, VC in professional contexts and discussing the communicative aspects of VC. Section 3.2 then gives an overview of video‐ mediated interpreting, before section 3.3 discusses specific challenges of video‐mediated interpreting, especially regarding the communicative interaction, and presents a variety of strategies and solutions. 3.1. Face‐to‐face vs. video‐mediated communication ‐ monolingual Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey VC is used in a range of professional contexts. The overview given in section 3.1.1 covers the settings that are particularly relevant with a view to interpreter‐mediated communication, i.e. legal, healthcare and business settings. Section 3.1.2 highlights the main communicative challenges of VC, followed by conclusions especially with a view to video‐mediated interpreting in section 3.1.3. 3.1.1. Videoconferencing in professional contexts Legal settings VC has been used in legal settings since the 1990s (see § 1.4). More recently, they have become a top priority of the Multiannual European e‐Justice Action Plans 2008‐2013 and 2014‐2018. The last decade has seen an increasing use of VC in justice sector institutions across Europe and globally, both in national and cross‐border proceedings (e.g. to link a defendant in prison or a witness in another country to a court). The rationale for this trend is the potential that VC technology offers for improving judicial efficiency and access to justice, and thus for strengthening the rights of European citizens. In spite of these developments, however, research into the use of VC in legal proceedings has generated mixed results. Video links with remote participants have become common in many countries in all parts of the justice sector, i.e. criminal and civil justice and asylum/immigration settings. The following types of video links are currently used – to varying extent – in the justice sector across Europe (Braun et al. 2018): Criminal Justice - Links between courts and remote parties, i.e.: o Court – defendant in prison for pre‐trial hearings and remote sentencing - Links between courts and remote witnesses, i.e.: o Court – geographically remote witnesses (nationally and abroad) o Court – vulnerable witnesses - Lawyer‐client communication o Lawyer from own office or from court – defendant in prison Civil Justice - Links between courts and witnesses nationally and abroad Case management conferences 104 - Other uses by consent of the parties Immigration and Asylum - Links between Immigration Tribunals and claimants or appellants Whilst it has been argued that the use of video links can improve access to legal services and justice, a number of researchers have been sceptical about the viability of these video links, have highlighted concerns for fair trial and fairness of justice, and have warned of potential unwanted consequences. Federman (2006), writing in the immigration context, claims that videoconferencing in such settings multiplies the complexity of legal communication and that “the mediation effects created through videoconferencing introduce the significant possibility of inconsistency, inaccuracy, and altered judgment” (2006: 450). As examples of such effects, Haas (2006) highlights interaction problems created by problems with eye contact, identification and interpretation of body language, poor sound quality as well as problems with interpreter‐mediated communication in videoconferences. As a further example, Benforado (2010) discusses bias through camera positioning. A study conducted for Bail for Immigration Detainees (2008) finds that detainees feel isolated in video links between detention centres and courts. In view of such findings, the Harvard Law Review warns that VC use may result in a system “in which individuals gain speedier entrance [to an immigration court] but fewer receive the opportunity to be heard in a meaningful manner” (2009: 1193). With reference to criminal justice, Poulin (2004) believes that decisions regarding the use of videoconferencing in criminal proceedings may be biased or influenced by cost savings and that defendants’ needs and interests are not sufficiently addressed. Taking this point further, Sossin and Yetnikoff (2007: 248) argue that “questions of financial resources and structures” cannot be separated “from the question of fairness and reasonableness” of judicial decision‐making. In a different line of enquiry, some work in Australia and the Netherlands has been conducted to study the conditions under which videoconference technology may be used in court and the technical set‐ ups that are appropriate (Rowden et al. 2013, van Rotterdam and van den Hoogen 2012). This work has taken into account the specifics of legal communication and has emphasised the importance of the audio‐visual environment as a whole (including distribution of participants, their position in relation to the equipment, acoustics, visibility etc). Healthcare settings The use of videoconferencing has also increased in healthcare settings, including ‘video visits’, i.e. remote patient monitoring and patient care (see § 1.4). The public healthcare system in the United Kingdom, the NHS, for example, announced in 2016 that patients across the country will be able to go online and speak to their GP via video link. The argument driving this development is a contention that the use of VC improves the quality of care. Melbye et al. (2014) claim that VC on mobile phones can be used successfully for emergency calls during medical emergencies. This is corroborated by Taylor et al. (2015), although their study also points to technological problems such as pixilation that currently still inhibit the effectiveness of mobile videoconferencing. Zuiderent et al. (2003) contend that technology‐mediated communication such as VC is most likely to work if it is integrated in existing workflows. There is, however, debate about whether VC has sufficient benefits to justify its use. This debate highlights the fact that the availability of visual clues, which videoconferencing as a medium of communication offers, is not a panacea for solving the possible communication problems that exist in telephone communication. At the same time, there is some evidence that VC can be successful even in some very sensitive settings, e.g. in remote therapy settings and forensic healthcare, linking medical specialists to patients in prisons and clinics (Sullivan et al. 2008). 105 The question then seems to be which factors contribute to VC communication being – or being perceived as – more or less successful. Arguably, the answer is linked to parameters of communication. Before looking at this, a brief overview of another field of application will be given, i.e. VC use in business settings. Business settings With businesses are expanding into the global marketplace at an increasing rate, virtual meetings between distributed team members have become an every‐day phenomenon (see § 1.4). Research in this setting has focused on the collaborative dimension of virtual meetings in different types of workplace environments, trying to detect whether VC is conducive to achieving the common goals of the meeting, accomplishing tasks and decisions. This line of research has focused on a variety of configurations, ranging from pairs to smaller and larger groups of people (Sonnewald et al. for overview 2002). Among the main parameters investigated is the effectiveness of interpersonal interaction, i.e. how interpersonal interaction is influenced by a technology‐mediated environment. Research has highlighted the impact of VC on turn‐taking mechanisms (e.g. Ruhleder & Jordan, 2001; Isaacs, Morris, Rodriguez, & Tang, 1995). For instance, Masoodian, Apperley and Frederickson (1995) and Sellen (1992) found no statistical difference in speech duration and turn taking between pairs and small groups working, inter alia, face‐to‐face, with audio only or with video and audio. However, Sellen highlights the higher frequency of simultaneous speech in face‐to‐face settings, and the increased difficulty to gain control of the conversation in video‐mediated communication. Other studies have focused on the impact of reduced access to non‐verbal behaviour in video‐mediated communication (Heath and Luff, 1991), particularly how it can (often negatively) influence impression formation (e.g. Anderson, 1992; Storck and Sproull 1995). Barefoot and Strickland (1982) highlighted another interesting dimension of interpersonal communication, i.e. the expression of conflict and disagreement during discussions, pointing to the inhibiting effect VC can have on this dimension. As ‘conflict’ was more present in face‐to‐face discussions, these could ultimately produce better outcomes. Exchanging confidential information is another dimension of interpersonal communication that was found to be hindered in video‐mediated communication more than in face‐to‐face one (e.g. Rice 1993). Other research has focused on the impact of VC on work processes and outcomes. Some earlier studies concluded that video did not seem to influence the accomplishment of tasks and work quality, unless negotiations were required (Short, Williams & Christie, 1976). Other, more recent studies, have taken a clearer stance on this issue. Some have highlighted how videos can make work processes more cumbersome particularly in their initial stages, compared to face‐to‐face interaction. Other studies, however, have highlighted how videos could even improve the quality of work outcome by supporting the sharing of data which might not otherwise be visible or accessible to team members (e.g. Nardi, Schwarz, Kuchinsky, Leichner, Whittaker and Sclabassi 1993). 3.1.2. Communicative aspects of videoconferencing The previous section has shown that the applications of VC to professional communication cover a wide range of purposes or genres. The spread of VC partly accounts for the different evaluations that video‐mediated communication has received within and across different fields. Further differences may arise from the set‐up or configuration of the videoconference. In its simplest form, a video link can be set‐up between two sites, but multi‐point videoconferences with several sites have also become common. A further parameter is group size (one‐to‐one, one‐to‐many; many‐to‐many). In addition, differences in the perception of videoconferences arise depending on whether VC is compared and contrasted with face‐to‐face communication or with other tools for distance 106 communication. In a seminal work in this field, Short et al. (1976) discussed the efficiency of distance communication tools in supporting different communication purposes or genres, which led to the development of social presence theory. Social Presence Theory The concept of ‘social presence’ is not easy to grasp. Short et al. originally defined it as the “degree of salience of the other person in a mediated communication and the consequent salience of their interpersonal interactions” (1976: 65); Bull and Rumsey (1988) describe it as the feeling of being “there”. More recent definitions have focused on “sense of togetherness” (Hauber et al. 2005), i.e. on “the ability of the users to perceive each other” (Fägersten, 2010: 178). Social presence theory places different communication media along a continuum, where the degree of social presence is equated with the degree of awareness of the other person in a communication interaction. This discussion is linked to the ability of different communication media to transmit interpersonal verbal and non‐verbal cues. Short et al. postulated that the absence of such cues leads to a reduced ‘social presence’ between participants. Similarly, Heath & Luff (1991) talk about the participants’ “relative insensitivity” towards other participants’ situated conduct in distance communication. Since Short et al. also believed that social presence is more important for achieving social tasks such as conflict resolution and negotiation than intellectual tasks such as decision‐making, it has often been assumed that videoconferencing is more suited for the latter. However, Ferran and Watts (2008), who re‐visit this and other early claims about videoconferencing point out that conclusive evidence is not available. Moreover, many communication genres have not been investigated systematically in terms of whether the medium of videoconference supports them efficiently. Videoconference communication compared to face‐to‐face communication One of the obvious differences is that participants in videoconferences do not share the same physical space or context. They only have a partial and two‐dimensional view of each other, i.e. they see the two‐dimensional image of the remote participants and the remote environment that is captured by the camera and presented on the screen. Due to the two‐dimensional nature of a video screen, there is no peripheral vision or awareness (Heath and Luff, 1991). The physical separation of the interlocutors leads to the fragmentation of the communicative, i.e. to a “fractured ecology” (Luff and Heath 2003) and an extract‐like view/perception of each other’s communicative environments (Braun 2003, 2004, Braun et al. 1999). According to Luff et al., video‐mediated communication therefore entails that [m]utatis mutandi participants are unable to design their own conduct in such a way that it is sensible and recognizable to a co‐participant who has only limited access to the environment in which the action is produced. In this sense, conduct is fractured—fractured from the environment in which it is produced and from the environment in which is received. (Luff & Heath 2003: 55) Research shows that the fragmentation can disrupt the sense of togetherness because eye contact, gaze direction and other clues that are important for creating a sense of presence are difficult to reproduce in VCs (Luff & Heath 2003). Another research finding is that the fragmentation can make it difficult to gauge the situation at the remote site and create a latent uncertainty about what ‘the other side’ does (Braun 2004). In other words, the technical channels (audio, video) used in videoconferencing are less effective in transmitting contextualisation clues, leading to greater insensitivity towards each other’s communicative behaviour in videoconferences. 107 All of this seems to have an impact on the ability to contextualise the communicative event and on the salience of the other participants and their actions. The observed consequences include, for instance, unnatural breaks, unnatural ways of speaking, a tendency to speak louder, over‐elaborate, be less coherent as well as fatigue (Braun, 2004; Braun, Kohn & Mikasa 1999; O'Connaill, Whittacker & Wilbur 1993; Tang & Isaacs 1993). Avoidance of ‘difficult’ or complex topics has also been observed, where there was a free choice of conversational topics (Tang and Isaacs 1993). In addition, interlocutors have been found to spend a considerable amount of time on explicitly co‐ ordinating the communication. O’Malley et al. (1996) argue that a “greater processing overhead” is required in videoconferences, making the communication potentially less efficient. Similarly, Martin and Rouncefield’s (2003), who studied videoconferencing in banking (service encounters), suggest that the VC led to more “demeanour’ work” by the operators, manifest e.g. in the form of exaggerated smiling, nodding, facial gestures, conversational asides, jokes. The authors point to the new communication skills that will be needed for this type of communication. Ferran and Watts (2008) furthermore argue that videoconference communication increases the participants’ cognitive load because coordinating the communication and identifying who is speaking (when there is more than one person per site), creating (the illusion of) eye‐contact and other tasks – all to be carried out while processing what the speaker is saying – takes up cognitive resources. Ferran and Watts observe that the high cognitive load entails new information‐processing strategies in VCs which differ from other forms of communication. Visual cues such as the likeability of a person, for example, are shown to become more important than the content of what is said. In his observations of video‐mediated communication over man years, Whittacker (2003) comes to the overarching conclusion that system designers need to consider carefully the relationship between the technology employed and the task at hand, what visual information is shown and how it is shown in the context of what is to be achieved. Zuiderent et al. (2003) similarly highlight the importance of how the different constellations of technology, work practices, and skills have to be configured to ensure efficient and communication flows. 3.1.3. Conclusions This section has provided a brief overview of a) the uses of VC as a tool for communication in different professional settings and a) a range of communicative aspects that can be observed in video‐mediated communication. As the brief discussion shows, the technological medium of VC, which entails the physical separation of the participants and removes the direct contact between them, has become an important means of everyday communication in professional context. It adds a layer of complexity to the communication. The use of familiar resources such as backchanneling, latching, gaze and other non‐verbal resources are less effective than in face‐to‐face communication. This in turn leads to a feeling of reduced presence. Overcoming this feeling, i.e. recreating a sense of togetherness, is likely to require more cognitive effort than face‐to‐face communication. In addition, video‐mediated communication has also been shown to have an impact on how the content of utterances is processed. Given the challenges of VC communication, a practical conclusion in many settings has been to limit its use to communication of a short duration and between a small number of participants. Whilst VC is arguably the currently richest medium for distance communication, its current limitations have to be borne in mind when this technology is applied to interpreter‐mediated communication, which adds another layer of complexity due to the intricacies of interlingual and intercultural communication. 108 References Anderson, Neil R. (1992): “Eight decades of employment interview research: A retrospective meta‐ review and prospective commentary”, European Work and Organizational Psychologist, 2 (1), 1‐32. BiD (2008): Immigration bail hearings by video link: a monitoring exercise by Bail for Immigration Detainees and the Refugee Council. London: BID. Barefoot, John C.; Strickland, Lloyd H. (1982): “Conflict and dominance in television‐mediated interactions”, Human Relations, 35 (7), 559‐566. Benforado, Adam (2010): “Frames of Injustice: The Bias We Overlook”, Indiana Law Journal 85: 4, 1333‐1378. Braun, Sabine; Kohn, Kurt; Mikasa, Hans (1999): “Kommunikation in der mehrsprachigen Videokonferenz: Implikationen für das Dolmetschen“, H. Gerzymisch‐Arbogast; D. Gile; J. House; A. Rothkegel (eds.), Neuere Fragestellungen der Übersetzungs‐ und Dolmetschforschung. Tübingen: Narr, 267‐305. Braun, Sabine; Kohn, Kurt (2001): “Dolmetschen in der Videokonferenz. Kommunikative Kompetenz und Monitoringstrategien“, Kultur und Übersetzung. Methodologische Probleme des Kulturtransfers. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1‐32.. Braun, Sabine (2003): “Kommunikation unter widrigen Umständen? – Optimierungsstrategien in zweisprachigen Videokonferenz‐Gesprächen”, J. Döring (ed.), Connecting Perspectives. Videokonferencz: Beiträge zu ihrer Erforschung und Anwendung. Aachen: Shaker, 167‐185. Braun, Sabine (2004): Kommunikation unter widrigen Umständen? Fallstudien zu einsprachigen und gedolmetschten Videokonferenzen. Tübingen: Narr. Braun, Sabine; Davitti, Elena; Dicerto, Sara (2018): “Video‐Mediated Interpreting in Legal Settings: Assessing the implementation”, J. Napier, R. Skinner and S. Braun (eds.), Here or There: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Bull, Ray; Rumsey, Nicola (1988): The social psychology of facial appearance. Heidelberg/New York: Springer. Fägersten, Kristy Beers (2010): “Using discourse analysis to assess social co‐presence in the video conference environment”, L. Shedletsky; J. Aitken (eds.), Cases on online discussion and interaction: Experiences and outcomes. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 175‐193. Federman, Mark (2006): “On the Media Effects of Immigration and Refugee Board Hearings via Videoconference”, Journal of Refugee Studies, 19:4, 433‐452. Ferrán, Carlos; Watts, Stephanie (2008): “Videoconferencing in the Field: A Heuristic Processing Model”, Management Science, 54:9, 1565‐1578. Haas, Aaron (2006): “Videoconferencing in Immigration Proceedings”, Pierce Law Review, 5:1, 59‐90. Harvard Law School (2009): “Access to Courts and Videoconferencing in Immigration Court Proceedings”, Harvard Law Review, 122 (1151), 1181‐1193. Hauber, Jörg et al. (2005): “Social Presence in Two‐ and Three‐dimensional Videoconferencing”, Proceedings of 8th Annual International Workshop on Presence. London, 189‐198. Heath, Christian; Luff, Paul (1991): “Disembodied conduct: Communication through video in a multi‐ media office environment, Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI’91. New Orleans, Louisiana: ACM, 99‐103. 109 Isaacs, Ellen et al. (1995): “A Comparison of face‐to‐face and distributed presentations”, Proceedings of the Conference on Computer‐Human Interaction (CHI '95).Denver: ACM Press/Addison‐Wesley Publishing Co., 354‐361. Luff, Paul et al. (2003): “Fractured ecologies: Creating environments for collaboration”, Human‐ Computer Interaction, 18 (1‐2), 51–84. Masoodian, Massod; Apperley, Mark; Frederickson, Lesley (1995): “Video support for shared work‐ space interaction: An empirical study”, Interacting with Computers, 7 (3), 237‐253. Martin, David; Rouncefield Mark (2003): “Making the organisation come alive: talking through and about the technology in remote banking”, Human‐Computer Interaction 18 (1): 111‐148. Melbye, Sigurd; Hotvedt, Martin; Bolle, Stein R. (2014): “Mobile videoconferencing for enhanced emergency medical communication ‐ a shot in the dark or a walk in the park? ‒‒ A simulation study”, Scandinavian Journal of Trauma, Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine, 22 (1), 35. Nardi, Bonnie A., et al. (1993): "Turning away from talking heads: The use of video‐as‐data in neurosurgery", Proceedings of the INTERACT'93 and CHI'93 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 327‐334. O'Connaill, Brid; Whittacker Steve; Wilbur Sylvia (1993): “Conversations over videoconferences: an evaluation of the spoken aspects of video‐mediated communication”, Human‐Computer Interaction, 8 (4), 389‐428. O'Malley, Claire (1996): “Comparison of face‐to‐face and video‐mediated communication”, Interacting‐with‐Computers, 8(2), 177‐192. Poulin, Anne Bowen (2004): “Criminal justice and videoconferencing technology: defendant”. Tulane Law Review, 78, 1089‐1167. the remote Rice, R. E. (1993): “Media appropriateness: Using social presence theory to compare traditional and new organizational media”, Human Communication Research, 19 (4), 451‐ 484. Rowden, Emma et al. (2013): “Gateways to justice: design and operational guidelines for remote participation in court proceedings”, Gateways to Justice Project, Australian Research Council. http://www.uws.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/471223/Gateways_to_Justice_Guidelines.pdf ] Ruhleder, Karen; Jordan, Brigitte. (2001): “Co‐constructing non‐mutual realities: Delaygenerated trouble n distributed interaction”, Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 10, 113‐138. Sellen, Abigail J. (1992): "Speech patterns in video‐mediated conversations", Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. CHI’92. NY: ACM, 49‐59. Short, John; Williams, Ederyn; Christie, Bruce (1976): The social psychology of telecommunications. Chichester: Wiley and Sons. Sonnenwald, Diane H. et al. (2002): “Collaboration in the large: Using video conferencing to facilitate large group interaction”, A. Gunasekaran; O. Khalil (eds.) Knowledge and Information Technology in 21st Century Organizations: Human and Social Perspectives. Hershey, PA: Idea Publishing, 115‐136. Sossin, Lorne; Yetnikoff, Zimra (2007): “I can see clearly now: Videoconference hearings and the legal limit on how tribunals allocate resources”, Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice, 25:2, 247‐272. Storck, John; Sproull, Lee (1995): “Through a glass darkly: What do people learn in videoconferences?”, Human Communication Research, 22 (2), 197‐219. Sullivan, Danny H.; Chapman, Murray; Mullen, Paul E. (2008): “Videoconferencing and Forensic Mental Health in Australia”, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 26:3, 323‐331. 110 Tang, John; Isaacs, Ellen (1992): “Why do users like video? Studies of multimedia‐supported collaboration”, Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 1, 3, 163‐193. Taylor, Alan et al. (2015): “Home Telehealth Video Conferencing: Perceptions and Performance”, JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 3(3), e90. Van Rotterdam, Peter; van den Hoogen, Ronald (2012): “True‐to‐life requirements for using videoconferencing in legal proceedings”, S. Braun; J. Taylor (eds.), Videoconference and Remote Interpreting in Criminal Proceedings. Guildford: University of Surrey, 215‐226. Whittacker, Steue (2003): “Theories and methods in mediated communication”, A. Graesser et al. (eds), The handbook of discourse processes. London: Routledge, 243‐286. Zuiderent, Teun; Winthereik, Brit Ross; Berg, Marc (2003): “Talking About Distributed Communication and Medicine: On Bringing Together Remote and Local Actors”, Human–Computer Interaction, 18(1‐ 2), 171‐180. 111 3.2. Traditional face‐to‐face vs. video‐mediated communication – with an interpreter Sabine Braun, Elena Davitti ‐ University of Surrey As was outlined in § 1.3, video‐mediated communication with an interpreter, i.e. video‐mediated interpreting (VMI), as one modality of distance interpreting, has different configurations. On the one hand, video remote interpreting (VRI), refers to the use of communication technologies to gain access to an interpreter who is in a different location than the main participants, while the main participants are together in one location. A similar configuration, videoconference interpreting (VCI), is required for interpreting in a videoconference between parties at different sites, but in this configuration, the interpreter is either co‐located with one of the parties or at a separate site. The latter configuration leads to a three‐way telephone or videoconference connection (Braun 2015). All configurations also include an element of remote working for both the main participants and the interpreter. Many of the points raised in this handbook will therefore also apply to all configurations of VMI. The main implication from research into VMI is that it is essential for all participants to develop a thorough understanding of the different layers of communication involved in VMI. This is necessary to ensure that the added complexity does not interfere with the goals of the communicative event and that it does not jeopardise broader aim such as the efficiency and fairness of justice or equal access to healthcare. In line with this, section 3.2.1 gives an overview of the main research findings regarding VMI to date. Section 3.2.2 outlines the main conclusions that can be drawn in light of available research findings, and section 3.2.3 offers general recommendations for VMI based on these research insights. 3.2.1. Research findings As was briefly outlined in section 1.3, research into VMI has covered several dimensions including efficiency gains and user satisfaction; performance quality; associated ergonomic, psychological and physiological factors; the dynamics of the communication; working conditions and adaptation. This section briefly summarises the findings of this research in each area. Efficiency gains and user satisfaction This line of research was mainly motivated by the gradual replacement of telephone‐mediated interpreting with video links from ca. 2000 onwards, especially in healthcare settings, and it therefore involved research comparing telephone‐mediated, video‐mediated and onsite interpreting. Several surveys of medical interpreters, physicians and patients show that interpreters and physicians generally prefer onsite interpreting, and that among the technology‐mediated modalities, video is preferred to telephone (Azarmina & Wallace 2005; Locatis et al. 2010; Price et al. 2012). Notably, however, the interpreters surveyed by Price et al. (2012) found all three modalities satisfactory for conveying information, but they rated the technology‐mediated modalities as less satisfactory for interpersonal aspects of communication, due to greater difficulties in establishing a rapport with the remote participants. Based on the survey participants’ perceptions, some authors furthermore suggest that levels of accuracy in onsite and distance interpreting are similar (Azarmina & Wallace 2005). However, as the next section will show, self‐perception alone is not a reliable indicator of performance quality. Interpreting quality Research into interpreting quality in VMI has drawn on both ‘objective’ measures such as the analysis of interpreting problems and ‘subjective’ measures such as the interpreters’ perceptions of their performance, but the pertinent studies are not directly comparable. It is therefore currently difficult to assess how the quality achieved in VMI compares to that in onsite interpreting. An early study in 112 the healthcare setting compared onsite consecutive and remote simultaneous interpreting using an audio‐only link, and found higher accuracy levels in the latter (Hornberger et al. 1996), although the use of a different mode of interpreting in each test condition may have skewed the results. Two studies comparing the quality of onsite and video‐mediated remote simultaneous interpreting in conference settings, i.e. the ITU/Geneva study (Moser‐Mercer 2003) and the European Parliament study (reported in Roziner & Shlesinger 2010), yield a different result. Although the interpreters participating in the EU Parliament study rated their own performance in remote interpreting as inferior, statistical analyses of interpreting problems in the two studies revealed few differences between the two modalities. A significant exception was the earlier onset of fatigue in remote interpreting in the ITU/Geneva study. By contrast, the studies conducted in the European AVIDICUS projects, comparing different configurations of VMI in legal settings, revealed a tendency of VMI to magnify interpreting problems (Braun & Taylor 2012a; Braun et al. 2013). A comparison specifically between onsite interpreting and video remote interpreting showed a significantly higher number of problems in remote interpreting along with a faster onset of fatigue (Braun 2013, 2014). These findings are corroborated by qualitative analyses of the remote interpreting data, which highlight, for example, lexical activation problems (Braun 2013) and over‐elaboration tendencies on the part of the interpreters as a way of coping with problems (Braun 2016). Ergonomic, psychological and physiological factors The ITU/Geneva study and the European Parliament study also show that the interpreters perceived remote interpreting to be more stressful than onsite interpreting. In the ITU study, the difference reached statistical significance. Although not corroborated by ‘objective’ stress hormone measures, this result coincides with other problems repeatedly reported by interpreters in relation to remote interpreting, including a sense of discomfort, fatigue, eye strain and nausea. Mouzourakis (2006) contends that these problems are caused by the overarching condition of remoteness, i.e. a reduced sense of presence or togetherness. As was pointed out in § 3.1, research suggests that video‐mediated communication disrupts the sense of presence because the non‐verbal embodied cues that interlocutors normally use become less effective (Luff et al. 2003), resulting in a latent uncertainty about what ‘the other side’ does (Braun 2004, 2007). Based on these insights, Moser‐Mercer (2005) argues that remote interpreting makes it more difficult for interpreters to process information and build mental representations of the situation, causing stress and fatigue. However, research in the medical setting has also highlighted possible benefits of remoteness, including, for example, the removal of distractions that interpreters normally experience in hospital environments, enabling them to focus better on the interpreting task (Koller & Pöchhacker 2018). Communicative interaction and dynamics The physical separation of the interpreter from some or all participants has also been observed to reduce the interpreter’s ability to engage with the participants and to affect turn‐taking patterns in different configurations and modalities of distance interpreting. Two studies comparing interpreter‐ mediated telephone conversations with monolingual conversations (Oviatt & Cohen 1992) and with face‐to‐face communication (Wadensjö 1999) revealed that interpreters spent considerable effort coordinating the conversation in telephone‐mediated interpreting. With regard to VMI, Licoppe and Verdier (2013) show how changes in turn‐taking patterns in interpreter‐mediated court hearings with remote participants lead to a fragmentation of the communication. Licoppe et al. (2018) discuss moral and ethical implications of changes in turn‐taking procedures. Additionally, patterns of interaction in 113 distance interpreting have also been investigated in sign‐language interpreting (Napier et al. 2018; Warnicke & Plejert 2012). Furthermore, ethnographic research points to the negative impact of imbalanced participant distributions, especially isolation of remote defendants in court hearings, and their difficulty in following the communication and being able to intervene when all but the defendant are located in court (BiD 2008; Braun et al. 2018; Ellis 2004; Fowler 2018). Some of this research also highlights the importance the positioning of all participants in relation to the equipment and to each other, and the skills and training required for effective communication management in technology‐mediated settings (Braun et al. 2018; Fowler 2018). Working conditions and adaptation Research has also begun to investigate the working conditions of interpreters in technology‐mediated settings, with mixed results. Research relating to sign‐language interpreting highlights negative impacts such as burnout (Bower 2015). For spoken‐language interpreting, Devaux (2016) concludes from surveying legal interpreters who work via video link that they have mixed feelings about this modality. They cite their own safety and the contribution to reducing procedural costs as advantages, and the changes in the communicative dynamics (see above) and dependence on technology as drawbacks. A recent analysis of interpreters working in video links in healthcare settings (Koller & Pöchhacker 2018) highlights perceived benefits of working remotely and the ability to adapt to this environment. Adaptation to technology‐mediated interpreting has also been studied in its own right. Braun (2004, 2007) investigates monitoring and adaptation processes employed by interpreters in VMI. She shows that adaptation is possible at the level of using the technology, as evidenced by adapted strategies for coordinating the interaction, whilst barriers to adaptation mainly result from system design flaws, e.g. poor sound quality, which lead to greater processing effort and a reduction in the interpreter’s performance. Braun (2016) furthermore explores the interpreters’ strategic use of additions and expansions to increase their ‘presence’ in video links. Moser‐Mercer (2005) argues that experienced interpreters may find it more difficult to adapt to remote interpreting because they rely on automated processes, whilst novice interpreters, especially when exposed to new modalities of interpreting during their training, may have a greater potential for adaptation. 3.2.2. Conclusions One of the key questions emerging from the research on VMI conducted to date is: what practice is a good practice? Whilst a level of standardisation is important, the variation across different legal systems, healthcare systems, business and other contexts where VMI is used, and variations in local (e.g. in terms of frequency of videoconference and interpreter use) suggests that a one‐size‐fits‐all approach is unlikely to work. Collaboration between interpreters and institutional stakeholders is required to decide, together, what is the most suitable framework for a particular communicative event, institution or country. At the day‐to‐day operational level, close cooperation between the interpreters and their clients is required to identify the best approach to each case. Whilst research clearly shows that the combination of videoconferencing and interpreting poses a great number of challenges, the potential benefits of appropriate solutions for VMI should not be dismissed. The ‘de‐materialisation’ of healthcare encounters, legal proceedings or business meetings through videoconferencing may reduce unnecessary costs and improve access to healthcare and justice, and business opportunities especially for small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). In light of this, the following section provides a set of key recommendations that are applicable across different settings and configurations of VMI, before section 3.3 explores specific communicative challenges of VMI and illustrates possible solutions. 114 3.2.3. Recommendations for VMI The recommendations refer to the main aspects underpinning the viability of VMI, i.e. technical parameters such as the VC connection and the equipment used, spatial parameters such as the physical/geographical distribution of the participants, recommendations for interaction between stakeholders and the interpreter before and after a video link is used, and recommendations referring to the management of the video link and the communicative interaction. VC Connection and Equipment - - - - The VC connection and equipment must provide high sound and video quality, particularly when VC is used in conjunction with interpreting services. The sound transmission must support two‐way communication, i.e. turn‐taking and overlapping speech. Connection stability is fundamental, i.e. the system needs to deliver high sound and video quality continuously. Technical disruptions are likely to have a negative impact on the interpreter’s rendition. The number and position of VC equipment items such as screens and cameras is crucial for effective VC communication and needs to be adjusted to the number and location of participants. Rooms designed for small groups may require only one VC screen, so long as this screen is clearly visible to all participants including the interpreter. Larger rooms will require multiple screens for good visibility. All participants who are expected to speak should be provided with individual microphones. Interpreters in particular should have a dedicated microphone. Headphones should be provided where applicable. All VC sessions should be set up and tested by a technician beforehand. Technical assistance should be generally available during a VC in case of a breakdown. Procedures for dealing with technological failure should be set up by the managing authorities. Participant Distribution - - The physical location of some of the participants is sometimes pre‐determined. However, there are often options for the location of other participants and that of the interpreter. There are advantages and drawbacks to all possible interpreter locations. The options should be carefully considered in the context of the situation. Strong asymmetries in the participants’ distribution should be avoided, where possible. A three‐way video link should be considered as a way of integrating the interpreter into VC‐based proceedings in which the main participants themselves are distributed. When the interpreter is separated from all of the main participants (‘remote interpreting’), due attention needs to be paid to ensuring that the interpreter can carry out his/her task satisfactorily. Pre‐VC/Post‐VC - - Thorough preparation of all VCs is essential, both from a technical and a communicative point of view. Each institution should clarify the procedure for setting up and booking a VC, both in general and with additional provisions for the presence of an interpreter. All participants should know in advance that a video link will be used. As far as possible, interpreters should be provided with information and/or documents outlining at least the basic elements of the communicative situation – briefing an interpreter does not reduce their ability to be impartial. 115 - Allowing the interpreter some contact with the other‐language speaker prior to the hearing, e.g. to perform a language check, is important, regardless of whether the two are co‐located or not. If possible and appropriate, it would be beneficial to have a short de‐briefing with the interpreter after the VC session to obtain their feedback. Any reported problems should be dealt with as soon as possible. VC Management - - VCs generally do not support the same level of contact and interaction between the participants as face‐to‐face communication, especially when the communication is mediated by an interpreter. Care should be taken to ensure that those involved in a VC feel that they are part of the communicative situation and are able to clearly identify speakers and their roles. VCs should be set up so as to allow mutual visibility of all participants. The interpreter’s location and visibility should be carefully considered. The interpreter should be visible regardless of the setting, unless this presents a risk for his/her security or that of the other‐ language speaker. VC cameras should be set up so as to capture the communicative dynamics of the event and show at least the current speaker. Institutions using VMI should assign a member of staff to the management of the VC equipment and instruct them to ensure the visibility of participants. Communication Management - - VC/VMI is useful for short proceedings involving a small number of participants. The responsibility for managing the flow of communication and interaction between participants in VMI lies with the professional who is responsible for the interaction (e.g. a doctor, a lawyer the chair of a business meeting). The interpreter is responsible for coordinating the communication and interaction only to the extent that this is necessary to ensure there is no loss of information. The person in charge of the event should agree communication procedures with the interpreter before the VC session starts. At the beginning of the VC the person in charge of the event should check that all participants can see/be seen and hear/be heard clearly, and should introduce all participants. All participants should be instructed to speak clearly, using clear and unambiguous language as far as possible. During the VC the person in charge should take due care that all participants can contribute appropriately, irrespective of their location. The interpreter should be given space and time to interpret and to carry out his/her task effectively. 116 References Azarmina, Peijman; Wallace, Paul (2005): “Remote interpretation in medical encounters: a systematic review”, Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 11, 3, 140–145. BiD (2008): Immigration bail hearings by video link: a monitoring exercise by Bail for Immigration Detainees and the Refugee Council. London: BID. Bower, Kathryn (2015): "Stress and Burnout in Video Relay Service (VRS) Interpreting", Journal of Interpretation, Vol. 24 (1), Article 2. Braun, Sabine (2004): Kommunikation unter widrigen Umständen? Fallstudien zu einsprachigen und gedolmetschten Videokonferenzen. Tübingen: Narr. Braun, Sabine (2007): “Interpreting in small‐group bilingual videoconferences: challenges and adaptation processes”, Interpreting, 9 (1), 21‐46. Braun, Sabine (2013): “Keep your distance? Remote interpreting in legal proceedings: A critical assessment of a growing practice”, Interpreting, 15 (2), 200‐228. Braun, Sabine (2014): “Comparing traditional and remote interpreting in police settings: quality and impact factors”, M. Viezzi; C. Falbo (eds.), Traduzione e interpretazione per la società e le istituzioni. Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste, 161‐176. Braun, Sabine (2015): “Remote Interpreting”, H. Mikkelson; R. Jourdenais (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. Braun, Sabine (2016): “What a micro‐analytical investigation of additions and expansions in remote interpreting can tell us about interpreter’s participation in a shared virtual space”, Journal of Pragmatics, 107, 165‐177. Braun, Sabine; Taylor, Judith (2012a): “Video‐mediated interpreting in criminal proceedings: two European surveys”, S. Braun; J. Taylor (eds.), Videoconference and remote interpreting in legal proceedings. Cambrigde: Intersentia, 69‐98. Braun, Sabine et al. (2013): “Assessment of Video‐Mediated Interpreting in the Criminal Justice System”, AVIDICUS 2 Research Report. http://wp.videoconference‐interpreting.net/wp‐ content/uploads/2014/01/AVIDICUS2‐Research‐report.pdf] Braun, Sabine; Davitti, Elena; Dicerto, Sara (2018): “Video‐Mediated Interpreting in Legal Settings: Assessing the implementation”, J. Napier; R. Skinner; S. Braun (eds.), Here or There: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Devaux, Jérôme (2016): “When the role of the court interpreter intersects and interacts with new technologies”, P. Henry‐Tierney; D. Karunanayake (eds.), Intersect, innovate, interact. Manchester: CTIS Occasional Papers, 4‐21. Ellis, S. Ronald (2004): Report to the Immigration and Refugee Board Audit and Evaluation Committee, Immigration and Refugee Board Response to the Report on Videoconferencing in Refugee Hearings. http://www.irbcisr.gc.ca/Eng/transp/ReviewEval/Pages/Video.aspx] Fowler, Y. (2018): “Interpreted prison video link: The prisoner’s eye view”, J. Napier, R. Skinner and S. Braun (eds.), Here or There: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Hornberger, John C. et al. (1996): “Eliminating language barriers for non‐English‐speaking patients”, Medical Care, 34 (8), 845‐856. 117 Koller, M.; Pöchhacker, Franz (2018): “The work and skills: A profile of first‐generation video remote interpreters”, J. Napier; R. Skinner; S. Braun (eds.), Here or There: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Licoppe, Christian; Verdier, Maud (2013): “Interpreting, video communication and the sequential reshaping of institutional talk in the bilingual and distributed courtroom”, International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law, 20, 247–276. Licoppe, Christian; Verdier, Maud; Veyrier, Clair‐Antoine (2018): “Voice, power and turn‐taking in multilingual, consecutively interpreted courtroom proceedings with video links”, J. Napier; R. Skinner; S. Braun (eds.), Here or there: Research on interpreting via video link. Washington: Gallaudet, (forthcoming). Locatis, Craig et al. (2010): “Comparing in‐person, video, and telephonic medical interpretation”, Journal of General Internal Medicine, 25 (4), 345–350. Luff, Paul et al. (2003): “Fractured ecologies: Creating environments for collaboration”, Human‐ Computer Interaction, 18 (1‐2), 51–84. Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2003): “Remote interpreting: assessment of human factors and performance parameters”, Communicate! , Summer 2003. http://aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm?page_id=1125] Moser‐Mercer, Barbara (2005): “Remote interpreting: issues of multi‐sensory integration in a multilingual task”, Meta, 50 (2), 727‐738. Mouzourakis, Panayotis (2006): “Remote interpreting: a technical perspective on recent experiments”, Interpreting, 8 (1), 45‐66. Napier, Jemina; Skinner, Robert; Braun, Sabine (eds.) (2018): Here or There: Research on remote interpreting. Washington: Gallaudet Press (forthcoming). Oviatt, Sharon L.; Cohen, Philip R. (1992): “Spoken Language in Interpreted Telephone Dialogues”, Computer Speech and Language, 6 (3), 277‐302. Price, Erika et al. (2012): “Interpreter perspectives of in person, telephonic, and videoconferencing medical interpretation in clinical encounters”, Patient Education and Counseling, 87 (2), 226–232. Roziner, Ilan; Shlesinger, Miriam (2010): “Much ado about something remote: Stress and performance in remote interpreting”, Interpreting, 12 (2), 214–247. Wadensjö, Cecilia (1999): “Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction”, The Translator, Special Issue. Dialogue Interpreting, 5 (2), 247‐264. https://www.stjerome.co.uk/tsa/abstract/121/Telephone interpreting and the synchronisation of talk in social interaction] Warnicke, Camilla; Plejert, Charlotta (2012): “Turn‐organisation in mediated phone interaction using Video Relay Service (VRS)”, Journal of Pragmatics, 44 (10), 1313‐1334. 118 3.3 Challenges and solutions Elena Davitti, Sabine Braun ‐ University of Surrey This section will introduce and discuss a number of extracts from the corpus of video‐recorded remote interpreting interaction collected within the framework of SHIFT. Each extract will exemplify specific interactional phenomena which have been found either to occur specifically in the given remote interpreting settings or to be magnified in these settings. The examples are taken from authentic interaction, so they show how the interpreters involved behaved ‘there and then’, depending on a number of contextual factors, and how they responded to specific challenges. Rather than illustrating ‘good’ or ‘bad’ practice, the examples serve as a springboard to discuss (a) the implications of the specific move implemented by the interpreter and (b) alternative moves or options that the interpreter could have adopted. Through micro‐analytical observation of interpreters’ actions, the aim is to encourage readers to develop their own analytical, reflective and critical skills, which are essential to make informed decisions and develop adaptive strategies. The discussion begins by considering the opening phase in the first section below and then moves on to the spatial organization, turn‐taking, references to primary participants, use of embodied resources, comprehension problems, handling objects, managing cognitive resources and the closing phase. While many of the examples illustrate different phenomena at once, the discussion will focus on the phenomenon addressed in the specific section. The “Points for discussion” box is meant to raise questions in relation to specific examples: these questions can be discussed in class or addressed during self‐study. In some cases, practice with role‐plays based on the data is recommended before analysing the actual example, in order to gain some first‐hand experience before discussing selected examples. 3.3.1 Opening The opening (and closing) of an encounter are fundamental phases in interpreter‐mediated interaction and can prove even more challenging when communication is handled remotely (see also § 2.3.2). These transition phases are key for all participants to settle in the remote mode of communication and establish rapport before the actual encounter begins. As a remote interpreter, you need to learn to handle this phase strategically and efficiently to ensure a smooth unfolding of the interaction and minimize the occurrence of problems later on in the encounter. To this end, you can focus on three main points: a) honour the initial ‘meet and greet’ phase efficiently; b) ensure the suitability of the set up; c) establish some ground rules for communication management. In relation to point (a), Example 1 shows the first stage of the opening of a nurse (A)‐patient (B) routine occupational health encounter mediated by an interpreter (I) and involving greetings and presentation. The call was set up by the remote interpreting service provider. Example 1 119 #FIG1 #FIG2 #FIG3 Extract 1 shows a pronounced effort from all parties to display openness towards one another through both verbal (e.g. reiterated instances of piacere/nice to meet you; repetition of name on the part of the interpreter) and embodied features (e.g. smiles, gestures accompanying talk, such as patient waving at the interpreter while introducing himself). Coming across as polite and friendly is an important factor in establishing rapport, particularly in a collaborative setting such as the one presented here. However, the example also suggests that remote communication can lead participants to magnify this effort, possibly to compensate for the lack of physical presence. Awareness of this point is important to avoid over‐elaboration and to make sure the greeting is commensurate with the type of encounter so that the opening proceeds as smoothly and naturally as possible (see also § 3.3.8). To this end, one key strategy could be to introduce oneself in both languages as of the start of the encounter. In relation to point (b), making sure that all participants are visible on screen and that you, as the interpreter, are visible to them is a crucial aspect of remote communication. This is best checked and adjusted in the opening phase. Example 3 in § 3.3.2 shows an instance of when this is not done, and how the interpreter needs to intervene to repair this, thus potentially causing some degree of disruption. Similarly, the interpreter needs to remember to monitor how s/he is visible to the other 120 parties, either by checking their picture‐in‐picture or by asking the primary participants directly. Technology can significantly alter the way we come across and, consequently, the way in which other people perceive us through the screen (see § 3.3.5). Being aware of this aspect and developing strategies to minimise its implications from the outset can therefore significantly improve the unfolding of video‐mediated encounters. In relation to point (c), explicitly addressing one’s role as a coordinator, e.g. by asking clients to speak in short chunks and negotiating a way to stop them to allow for the rendition, is another move that should be embedded in the opening stage of the encounter to prevent problems from occurring later. This may require different approaches in video‐mediated interaction than in face‐to‐face one, as it is closely linked to mutual visibility (i.e. how participants are displayed and come across on video) and audibility (i.e. how well participants can hear each other and whether the sound transmission support two‐way communication, i.e. turn‐taking and overlapping speech). To recap, a brief checklist for the successful management of this phase could include whether all participants are mutually visible and audible in addition to stating one’s name and function in both languages and explaining how turns will be handled. These simple moves could go some way to optimising not only the opening phase, but the video‐mediated encounter as a whole. 3.3.2 Spatial organization This section will focus more closely on one aspect that was briefly touched upon in § 3.3.1, i.e. participants’ spatial organization and positioning in relation to the equipment. Checking this aspect of the communication is key to ensuring that interpreters have enough contextual information in a situation where the flatness and two‐dimensionality of the screen considerably reduces access to essential embodied cues (see also § 1.3). While this handbook does not advocate a specific configuration or set‐up, it outlines some factors emerging from empirical analysis of authentic interaction that can help raise awareness of aspects related to spatial organization. The screenshots below show some extreme cases where spatial organisation is not addressed, therefore resulting in an unfavourable configuration that may have an impact on the way the interaction unfolds and, more generally, on the overall quality of the remote interpreting encounter. Example 2 is taken from an encounter between a pharmacist and a foreign client who is feeling unwell and needs to be treated for potential flu‐like symptoms. Example 2 External camera 121 Internal camera The equipment used is a tablet placed over the counter, with both the pharmacist and the client standing opposite each other with the tablet screen placed at a 90‐degree angle with respect to them. Both parties need to lean over the counter to be able to see the screen, which is far from ideal, particularly in case of a long encounter or if one of the participants is feeling unwell, as in this example. The internal camera reveals that the interpreter, throughout the encounter, can see the primary participants only partially on screen, while in some cases they are completely off‐screen (e.g. pharmacist on the left‐hand side of the screen). As a result, the interpreter can access only the sound of some participants’ contributions, thus potentially missing out on important embodied cues and working under telephone‐interpreting conditions. Strategic solutions need to be taken to improve the set‐up: in this case, raising the tablet slightly so that the participants do not have to lean over the counter to be able to see the interpreter and changing the angle in which they are positioned might be small but effective measures to improve the participants’ visibility for the interpreter. Example 3 is taken from an administrative encounter where a foreign student (B) needs assistance with obtaining a prepaid card. At this point, the administrative representative (A) has just finished uttering a very long explanatory turn and the interpreter (I) is about to start her rendition. Example 3 #FIG4 #FIG5 #FIG6 122 Notably, the (male) student is completely off screen when the interpreter is about to start her rendition (FIG. 4). At this point, the interpreter produces an autonomous comment about the fact that she has no visual access to “the client” (i.e. the student). In addition, the interpreter slightly repositions herself in front of the camera, seemingly in the attempt to gain better visual access to the client (as would be the case in a face‐to‐face live scenario). Although this is unattainable in video‐mediated interaction given its bidimensional nature, the interpreter’s combination of verbal and embodied resources triggers the student’s repositioning in front of the screen here, making him slightly more visible for the interpreter. This extract is used to raise awareness of two points: 1) potential disruptiveness of visibility issues and 2) need to adjust visibility prior to commencing the videoconference session. However, instead of simply hinting at the problem, the interpreter could have considered asking of instructing the participants directly to adjust their positioning in relation to the camera. 3.3.3 Turns Turn management in dialogic interaction is challenging irrespective of whether it happens face‐to‐face or remotely. In particular, chunking (i.e. the interpreter’s ability to understand how and when to intervene during a multi‐unit turn to provide their rendition and how to give the turn back to the speaker). The complexity of this practice, which is inherent in interpreter‐mediated interaction, can increase further in remote interpreting. Firstly, handling long, multi‐unit turns can be particularly difficult for the interpreter when s/he is working remotely. Example 4 is taken from a lawyer (A)‐client (B) consultation where the client is asking the lawyer for advice on divorce. Example 4 123 #FIG7 #FIG8 In this example the interpreter self‐selects for the floor quite abruptly and partially overlaps with the lawyer. She also produces a hand gesture that is, however, partially off‐screen. Instead of starting her rendition immediately, she explains why she is interrupting and that she will be giving the floor back, thus making her coordinating role explicit. Example 5 shows the problems that may occur when the interpreter tries to chunk the speaker’s turn too early and in latching, i.e. with no micropauses between turns. While this way of co‐constructing communication is effective in face‐to‐face settings, it may cause disruption in remote communication. The sequence is taken from an occupational health encounter and shows an attempt on the part of the interpreter (I) to chunk the nurse’s (A) turn via latching and short overlap. Example 5 124 #FIG9 #FIG10 Shortly after the nurse starts explaining what the test is about, the interpreter starts rendering what the nurse is saying (lines 3‐4) in latching. The same happens at lines 5‐6, where the nurse continues to explain the procedure, and the interpreter seemingly tries to take the floor (as shown by the in‐breath and sound produced at line 6), which causes the nurse to stop her turn and turn her gaze to the screen. Analysis of this extract, once again, raises awareness of what is (not) possible in the video‐mediated environment. Once again, the question arising here is what alternative coping mechanisms interpreters have at their disposal to implement their coordinating role without hindering the communicative flow in this type of interaction. 3.3.4 References to primary participants A common issue in face‐to‐face interpreter‐mediated interaction has to do with shifts in the use of pronouns (e.g. between first and third person), which may cause ambiguity and confusion in the way the message is conveyed (see § 2.3.5 and 2.3.10). The question here is whether such a common phenomenon in face‐to‐face interaction also arises in remote communication and, if so, whether it can potentially lead to more disruption in video‐mediated encounters and what coping strategies can be adopted. Example 6 is taken from an encounter between a fiscal expert (A) and a foreign client (B) mediated by a remote interpreter (I): the short sequence features at the start of the encounter, after the client has expressed why he needs the fiscal expert’s advice. Example 6 #FIG11 125 The interpreter refers to herself in the first person and then makes reference to the client in the third person as “il cliente che ha di fronte” (line 3) by the interpreter. The specification (“in front of you”) would be redundant in a face‐to‐face context. A closer look at the visual information the interpreter has access to from her site reveals that she cannot see the fiscal expert on screen and that she only has a partial view of the foreign client. Furthermore, while delivering her rendition, she mostly looks down (presumably at her notepad). The remoteness of the situation and the lack of visual engagement with the screen seems to make her addition relevant, as an attempt to compensate for the “distance” while attempting to achieve maximum clarity about “who is saying what to whom”. Example 7 shows another interesting adaptive strategy adopted by the same interpreter following some technical problems that had caused disruption during the encounter. The whole interaction is characterised by a long turn uttered by the fiscal expert (A) to explain all the stages of this process. After the line breaks down, the interpreter (I) starts coordinating the beginning of her rendition to the foreign client (B) by prefacing it with “I am back to you” as per transcript below. Example 7 The same does not happen when the interpreter renders the client’s turns into Italian. It is nevertheless an interesting device, which might also be triggered by the fact that the foreign client is the only one visually accessible on screen. While the client may not be aware of what/whom the interpreter can see, the interpreter’s reference “to you” is unlikely to be ambiguous here, given the language switch to English. An interesting point to explore is whether lack of visual access to the fiscal expert, combined with the shorter nature of the client’s turns, might have led the interpreter not to use the same device when interpreting into Italian. 126 3.3.5 Embodied resources This category is about the impact of different displays of embodied resources on the part of the interpreters. In particular, it refers to how these resources can be affected by different ways of positioning oneself in front of the camera. Close observation of set‐ups chosen by interpreters in action can help to increase self‐awareness and improve self‐monitoring. Below is an overview of different ways in which interpreters appeared on screen in the videos analysed. 1 3 2 4 5 The figures above show the video stream of the interpreter, as seen by the participants, on the right‐ hand side. It is worth reflecting upon how the different camera angles and the interpreters’ distance from the camera in each case have shaped the way they are displayed and, possibly, the way they are perceived in interaction. In all five encounters, only the face and shoulders of the respective interpreter are visible, while most of the rest of their upper bodies is hidden from the camera. In some cases, part of the head/face is not in the frame (e.g. 3 and 4). In other cases, the camera is angled from the bottom up (examples 2 and 5), thus increasing the visual salience of the interpreter. A discussion of these aspects raises awareness of the impact that camera angles and positioning in front of the camera can have on how the interpreter appears on screen and how this may affect the way s/he is perceived by the primary participants. Taking notes is another key activity carried out by interpreters in these settings, particularly when one of the primary parties produces a substantial/extended turn. The way interpreters position themselves in front of the screen while they are taking notes is also worth observing. 127 1 2 In both cases shown above, the fact that the interpreter is taking notes can only be inferred from analysing their posture and recognising it as a typical note‐taking posture. An important question is whether the note‐taking activity should be made visible on screen, i.e. whether the interpreter should sit further away from the camera so that her desk and hands are visible. Another point concerns the reduced force of gaze up as a turn‐regulating device in these settings. In face‐to‐face interaction interpreters can use their head and gaze movement to signal that they are ready to take the floor and start their rendition. In the video‐mediated setting such moves may not have the same impact considering the flatness of the screen and its position at a 90‐degree angle with respect to the participants, i.e. outside their direct visual access range. 3.3.6 Comprehension problems This category has to do with whether and to what extent remoteness may be a factor contributing to mishearing, affecting our understanding and hindering comprehension (see also § 2.3.6). Example 8, taken form the same lawyer‐client consultation as example 4, shows what happens almost 20 minutes after the beginning of the interaction. At this point, the interpreter (I) has just relayed a long question uttered by the lawyer (A) about a refund that the client (B) is requesting. The sequence below starts from the answer that the client provides. Example 8 128 In his turn, the client uses an idiomatic expression (“set the wheels in motion”) to convey the idea that he went to see the lawyer to get the whole process started. Despite some hesitations (repetition of “to set”), it is produced in a well‐articulated and clear manner. However, the rendition contains a distortion of the speaker’s ideas. The idiomatic expression is substituted with the idea that he went to see the lawyer to emotionally detach himself from the situation, instead of to get things started. Although it is difficult to establish the exact reasons behind this problem without asking the interpreter, it is possible to make some assumptions about what may have caused it by looking at the sequential and communicative context in which it occurs (e.g. at what point in the unfolding of the interaction, what happens before and afterwards, multimodal behaviour displayed by all parties, etc.). 3.3.7 Handling objects / artefacts / unexpected events This category captures instances when objects need to be manipulated by the primary parties and the implications that this can have in a video‐mediated environment due to the constrained access to immediate contextual cues. Example 9 is taken from the same occupational health encounter analysed in Examples 1 and 5 between a nurse (A) and a foreign patient (B). As already seen in Extract 5, part of the encounter has to do with performing a specific test called spirometry, i.e. a pulmonary function test that requires the patient to blow out as fast as possible into a special piece of equipment. This sequence, which is not reported here in its entirety for reasons of space, lasts approximately 8 minutes and it starts with the nurse explaining what the test is about, followed by how the test is performed and by three attempts made by the patient. Extract 10 illustrates part of this sequence, in particular the part in which the nurse shows the mouthpiece necessary for the test and explains how to use it. Example 9 129 #FIG12 #FIG13 #FIG14 As shown in the screenshots, the way the interaction is handled leads to at least one primary participant (i.e. the nurse) focusing on the screen more than engaging with her actual interlocutor (i.e. the patient) while explaining the procedure to follow. An extreme situation is the one exemplified #FIG13, where both participants look at the screen while the nurse is explaining. Example 10 shows a sequence where the main participants share an artefact to which the interpreter has no physical or visual access, and has therefore to find ways to compensate for this. The sequence is taken from the business encounter where a foreign client asks a fiscal expert what are the first steps towards opening a café in Italy (already seen in Examples 6 and 7). In particular, the fiscal expert is talking about taxation and tax brackets; as his speech is dense with figures and percentages, he points to a piece of paper in front of him to show the relevant number in relation to the specific type of tax when delivering his turn in Italian. The interpreter cannot see the artefact from her remote location, as shown by the screenshot below: The sequence is very long (just over 6 minutes, 31.21‐37.33), so only those stretches relevant to exemplify the points in relation to artefact manipulation and the strategies adopted by the interpreter will be reported here. Example 10 130 [31.21‐34.27] During the long turn produced by the fiscal expert, the interpreter (I) asks for a couple of clarifications. One is related to percentages and numbers, and the interpreters asks whether it is relevant that she relates them entirely given that the client has the document in front of him. The sequence now starts from the minute the interpreter initiates her rendition. [34.59‐35.19] The interpreter keeps delivering the rendition [35.37‐35.19] the interpreter keeps delivering the rendition #FIG15 #FIG16 #FIG17 #FIG18 In the first part of her rendition, the interpreter integrates an autonomous remark on the artefact, pointing out that the client may have already or will receive it, but she is not aware of it. During the remaining part of the rendition, the interpreter continues to make reference to the slide (when relevant) and double‐check the validity of the information she is giving with the client, who has visual access to the document itself. This strategy enables the interaction to unfold smoothly, but adds an additional level of monitoring by the interpreter due to the remoteness of the situation. 131 3.3.8 Managing cognitive resources As mentioned in § 1.1.7 and 3.1.3, the distance of the participants from each other may not only have an impact in terms of reduced sense of presence; it may also have repercussions on the interpreter’s performance. These repercussions may manifest themselves in different ways, for instance in a tendency to over‐elaborate (i.e. making unsolicited additions or repetitions) or in terms of lack of monitoring of one’s own renditions. Example 11 shows an interesting instance of over‐elaboration on the part of the interpreter. The extract is taken from the same occupational health encounter discussed earlier with a nurse (A) and foreign patient (B). At this point, the patient has already taken the spirometry test twice, and is required by the nurse to do it a third time. Example 11 #FIG19 #FIG20 #FIG21 Even though the nurse’s turns are not reported here, the interpreter’s rendition can be considered complete at line 5. This is followed by another autonomous expansion initiated by the interpreter, during which she reiterates for the patient how he is supposed to breathe into the equipment. This is done despite the patient’s repeated acknowledgment tokens (lines 6, 8), through which he signals understanding of the procedure to follow. The interpreter has also visual access to the patient’s nodding on screen (cf. Example 6 where the interpreter could not see the service provider on screen). Although it is difficult to establish from the data only what led to this over‐elaboration, it may be 132 tentatively argued that the remoteness of the encounter could have enhanced this repetition with a view to minimising ambiguity. 3.3.9 Closing As pointed out in § 3.3.1, closing the interaction is a further key phase, and a smooth and effective closing ensures that the rapport built with the clients during the interaction is not jeopardised (see also § 2.3.9). Example 12 shows an instance where awkwardness is brought about by the lack of a clarity in terms of who is supposed to bring the encounter to a close. The sequence is taken from the meeting between the fiscal expert (A) and the foreign client (B) interested in opening a bar already analysed in previous sections. Example 12 The sequence develops smoothly until line 9, where a gap not followed by the expected action (i.e. hanging up) triggers an addition on the part of the interpreter. Interestingly, the client is the one taking the lead and actually bringing the encounter to a close. The sequence exemplifies the need to ‘fill an awkward silence’ due to the lack of occurrence of an expected action, which ultimately leads to the interpreter’s turn being slightly cut off while acknowledging what has been said by the other party (line 12). 133 Points for discussion Example 4 This verbal move clearly resolves the contingent problem of taking the floor on the part of the interpreter. ‐ How would you describe this intervention on the part of the interpreter? ‐ Do you think that the way in which it is produced may have implications on how the interpreter comes across? ‐ What alternative options are available to the interpreter? Example 5 ‐ Do you think this way of initiating chunking on the part of the interpreter is effective? ‐ What could be its effect on the overall interaction? ‐ What alternative options are available to the interpreter? Section 3.3.5 ‐ What do you think of the different ways in which interpreters appear on screen? ‐ What could be the implications on how the interpreter is perceived? ‐ What adjustments, if any, would you make and why? Example 8 ‐ What factors may contribute to lack of comprehension in remote interpreting? ‐ What strategies need to be put in place to minimize the risk of this happening? Example 9 ‐ What could the implications of this way of handling the object on the interaction? ‐ What do you think of the interpreter’s way of responding to this challenge? Before or after looking at the example, you may want to: ‐ Practice the remote interpreting dialogue with your peers using the role‐play guidelines based on this scenario. ‐ Analyse weaknesses and strengths that emerged during the dialogue. ‐ Focus in particular on the way you have handled objects during your practice: did you experience any problems or any unexpected challenges? If so, how did you cope with them? What were the implications of your choices on the unfolding of the interaction? Example 10 ‐ What alternative options did the interpreter have? ‐ What would their implications be? Example 11 ‐ What are in your view the implications of the interpreter’s additions? ‐ Do you think this would work in any settings you have seen so far? 134 Recommended readings Azarmina, Peijman; Wallace, Paul (2005): “Remote interpretation in medical encounters: a systematic review”, Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 11, 3, 140–145. Braun, Sabine (2016): “What a micro‐analytical investigation of additions and expansions in remote interpreting can tell us about interpreter’s participation in a shared virtual space”, Journal of Pragmatics, Special Issue Participation in Interpreter‐Mediated Interaction, 107, 165‐177. Braun, Sabine (2015a): “Remote Interpreting”, H. Mikkelson; R. Jourdenais (eds.), Routledge Handbook of Interpreting. New York: Routledge, 352‐367. Braun, Sabine (2013): “Keep your distance? Remote interpreting in legal proceedings: A critical assessment of a growing practice”, Interpreting, 15 (2), 200‐228. Mouzourakis, Panayotis (2006): “Remote interpreting: a technical perspective on recent experiments”, Interpreting, 8 (1), 45‐66. 135 136 4 Basic requirements and prerequisites for successful communication with remote interpreting 137 Basic requirements and prerequisites for successful communication with remote interpreting María Jesús González Rodríguez – University of Bologna, Forlì Campus In this handbook we have seen − from a range of different perspectives − that all interactions are the product of a co‐construction carried out by primary participants and the interpreter, who negotiate linguistic and non‐verbal meanings. In remote interpreting, non‐verbal communication should always be taken into account as an extremely important factor, since it can provide essential information for primary participants and, even more, for the interpreter – for instance, in doctor/patient or police/victim interaction, or in an interaction between negotiating business partners. Voice is the main working tool of remote interpreters and it becomes even more important/relevant in telephone interpreting, where it carries linguistic and paralinguistic information; it is obviously also extremely important in videoconference interpreting, where it can be supported by gesture and facial mimics. It is therefore of paramount importance that remote interpreters are aware of the role of verbal and non‐verbal elements, are able to manage and use them in each of their working languages (and cultures), and are capable of adjusting them according to speakers, contexts and goals (see § 1.2). Arguably, the time has come for professionals and researchers interested in remote interpreting to shelve the debate on the pros and cons of remote interpreting; rather, they should recognise it as a form of dialogue interpreting with a few added difficulties (see § 1.3). The studies carried out on remote interpreting and within the SHIFT in Orality project have shown that remote interpreting requires specific skills, as well as knowledge of communication mechanisms and working methods that make it very different from face‐to‐face interpreting (see § 2.2 and 3.2). Remote interpreting modes (telephone and videoconference) are the result of the constant evolution of Information and Communication Technologies, of increased mobility, of global migration flows and consequent societal changes. All these factors lead to an evolution of interpreting services that are increasingly called upon to meet the demand for a “here and now” service provision. If we assume that remote interpreting is here to stay, efforts should focus on the study, analysis and follow‐up of its modes and evolutions. This approach will allow interpreters (of the future and of today) to benefit from specific training; and equip the users of remote interpreting services with the knowledge needed to work effectively with interpreters on the phone and in videoconference. The two remote interpreting service providers who took part in the SHIFT project (Dualia and VEASYT) and the market survey they carried out during the project confirm the growing trend in this interpreting mode. Furthermore, they highlighted that technologies and technological set‐up are a fundamental factor for a successful interaction (see § 1.5). In this respect, it is the service providers’ duty to keep constant track of technological innovations and update their systems constantly, while at the same time offering technological support and advice to interpreters. In order to achieve successful communication, service providers need to work with clients to define suitable protocols, communication modes and strategies which may vary depending on the client and setting. Another extremely important issue is ethics, not only for service providers, but also for interpreters, towards both clients and users (see §1.5.3, 1.5.4 and 1.5.5). In order to achieve a successful remotely interpreted interaction, therefore, interpreters need not only specific training and solid experience in face‐to‐face dialogue interpreting, but also to be capable of using appropriate technological tools, and above all to follow guidelines and protocols, and to adjust them to their clients/users and their goals 138 (see § 1.5.5, 2.2, 2.3 and 3.1). Remote interpreters should always bear in mind that the communication medium (telephone, videoconference) they work with determines what is being communicated and how. In § 2.1 and 3.1 the main features of remote communication were explained in detail: telephone communication is mainly based on one single sense (auditory), while videoconference is characterised by communication based on two senses: sight (often only partially) and hearing. In both cases interactions are based on the principles of the “social presence theory”, which studies the degree of presence perception, or participants’ awareness of the other. In remote communication, this perception is limited or fractured, which leads to non‐natural communication, with no visual contact on the telephone and partial visual contact in a videoconference. Distance can lead to a certain degree of uncertainty and therefore requires a higher cognitive and communicative effort during the interaction. Obviously, this also holds true for remote interpreters, who should bear this condition in mind, since it has an impact on their task. As far as telephone interpreting is concerned, there are a few main factors to take into account in order to achieve successful communication. Since only one sense is involved on the phone (with no visual information), turn management becomes more difficult, for instance; more in general, the interpreter has to make ad hoc decisions during the interaction concerning references to participants, noticing and responding to their verbal behaviour, managing the communication flow. Since sound is the only input, interpreters have to pay special attention to its quality, which will never be comparable to that of face‐to‐face interactions or of a simultaneous interpreting booth. Voices can also vary depending on the conditions or locations of speakers, sound can include background noises, echo, etc. (see § 2.3). Depending on the quality of the audio input, interpreters may ask the parties to move to a quieter spot, if possible, or to speak louder or closer to the telephone: this may occur in the case of a two‐way call, for example, when two primary participants share the same space and use a speakerphone, and the interpreter is on the other end of the line (see § 1.1 and 2.2). To achieve ideal sound quality, interpreters should have a good telephone connection and use a good quality headset with microphone so that their hands are free to take notes or search for information on another device (dictionaries, search engines, etc.). This “blind” interpreting condition displays a different kind of complexity in two‐way and three‐way calls (see constellations in § 1.1 and 2.2). In three‐way calls interpreters will need to gather information on the location of speakers (doctor in his/her office, patient at home) since this determines the strategies s/he will need to implement in the interaction. This kind of information, together with a briefing provided by the client/operator on the topic and goals of the call, are the two basic pillars for a successful remotely mediated interaction. However, as we have seen in the examples analysed in this handbook, interpreters do not always have access to these two basic pillars; in such a case, interpreters should try and obtain the basic information in the first turns, before the actual interaction begins (for example, in emergency calls, see also example 1 in paragraph 2.3). As for the management of communication in two‐way calls, it is advisable that interpreters gather information on the location and position of primary participants sharing the same space, in order to get a briefing from the client/caller before the actual interaction begins (see § 2.3). For instance, if the interpreter knows that the primary participants are in a medical office, the patient may be lying down for examination and the doctor may be standing at his/her side; in a police station, instead, we can imagine that the primary parties are sitting facing each other. It may happen, however, that interpreters are not provided with this information before a two‐way call, or that briefings may not be exhaustive (see example 3 in § 2.3); in this case, the interpreter will need to gather this information during the first turn with the user. 139 During the call, it is very useful to signal turn shifts by using appellatives to draw the primary participants’ attention (“Sir?”, “Doctor?”, “Colleague?”) and, in the case of a two‐way call where primary participants share the same space, interpreters should ask to be informed as to what is going on between the participants (e.g., Doctor: “I am now examining the patient’s lungs”). If the sound quality is poor, it is advisable to articulate words clearly and/or use yes/no questions. With toponyms (e.g. cities, streets) and proper nouns (e.g. surnames, drugs), the interpreter should make sure that s/he understands them correctly and, if necessary, request spelling and take notes. Numbers (phone numbers, ID numbers, etc.) should be repeated and checked with the participant who provided them, before conveying them to the operator/doctor/service dispatcher. During the call, it may be appropriate to use third person pronouns to ensure that it is always clear who is saying what and avoid misunderstandings between what is said by primary participants and what is said by the interpreter (§ 2.3.10). Interpreters should always make sure that the conversation has been closed with both parties before ending the session, and make sure there are no more questions, doubts or goodbyes to be uttered. Lastly, special attention should be given to emergency calls, since they often present comprehension problems, turn allocation issues and overlapping talk, as well as difficulties due to fast or inconsistent/fragmented talk. This is obviously due to the special conditions in which these calls occur: they are characterised by anxiety, fear or feelings of danger on the part of the caller (§ 2.1 and 2.3.8). In these cases, interpreters need to be trained to keep calm, focus very intensively on active listening, adjust their speed of talk to the participants (slower with callers, faster with operators) and implement strategies to make communication smoother: yes/no questions, ask in advance questions included in the protocol in agreement with the operator, etc. As far as videoconference interpreting is concerned, the different possible configurations of this kind of interaction (§ 3.2) allow for many different scenarios for the interpreter, and different strategies should be implemented accordingly (three‐way or two‐way conference, multiple participants on each side, etc.). What really matters is that interpreters are aware of the different degrees of complexity they will face in remote interpreting as compared to face‐to‐face: this is essential to ensure that the videoconference session achieves its goals (equity of justice, access to medical care, or other services). In § 3.2.1 the advantages and disadvantages of remote interpreting were illustrated as observed in various studies (some of which compare it to face‐to‐face interaction): research on interpreting quality, user satisfaction and several international research projects on videoconference interpreting. A general conclusion we might draw is that a single standardisation of good practices would not be effective, since the prerequisites and optimal conditions for videoconference interpreting do not exist a priori but, rather, they need to be adjusted to the different contexts (justice, healthcare, business), situations (first business meeting, post‐surgery follow‐up, police questioning) and peculiarities of the participants, languages and cultures involved (see also § 2.1.4). There are, however, a few recommendations that should be taken into account in all videoconference interpreting assignments (and some of them also hold true for telephone interpreting). Firstly, high quality connection and equipment: a permanently stable connection and good sound quality, together with no sound and image disruption (in order to detect turn overlaps, if any). In each location, there should be enough cameras and screens for all participants (in a small room, one screen may be enough, while in larger venues more than one screen will be necessary), with microphones for each of the participants. Cameras should catch the communicative dynamics of the event as fully as possible. Ideally, equipment and connection should be tested before the videoconference session and technical support should be available during the session in case technical issues arise. 140 Secondly, the distribution of participants in space should be organised carefully before the session. Interpreters should receive information and documents regarding the session in advance; if possible, it would also be helpful to arrange separate pre‐meetings between the interpreter and participants to solve any doubts prior to the session. The interpreter should be briefed thoroughly before the event begins; furthermore, a debriefing after the session would also be useful to understand the problems (if any) that cropped up and the solutions adopted during the interaction. Thirdly, one of the participants should be responsible for managing the communication flow and monitoring turns; this same person should also be responsible for introducing all participants before the interaction begins. The interpreter should step in and coordinate communication (interrupt a turn, request repetitions, etc.) only in case of dire need, for instance poor sound quality or comprehension problems. In order to reduce this kind of inconvenience to a minimum, all participants should be reminded to speak as clearly as possible before the interaction begins. The interpreter’s position and visibility should also be evaluated and decided with care, unless his/her identity needs to be protected under specific circumstances. The interpreter needs to be given enough time to carry out his/her tasks, including introducing him/herself to the participants and conveying the concluding remarks before the session closes. Lastly, the interpreter should never forget his/her function as ‘communication facilitator’, who not only conveys contents and information adequately and effectively, but also always offers equal support to the parties; and, whenever possible, develops a communicative empathy for all participants, paying special attention not only to what is being said, but also to how it is being said. This becomes particularly important in remote interpreting: in these interesting, complex and fascinating interpreting modes, a fluent and effective communication will depend for the most part on how we, as interpreters, use our most powerful working tool: speech. 141 142 5 Teaching materials 143 5.1 Preparatory exercises María Jesús González Rodríguez – University of Bologna, Forli Campus This section offers a series of suggestions and proposals to develop teaching materials to train students in remote interpreting in a specific training course, as self‐training or as warm‐up activities prior to the professional practice of remote interpreting. General indications on how to conceive and create written, audio and video materials are provided in this section together with suggestions on how to use different types of exercises for various purposes. All teaching materials can be adapted to any language pairs. 5.1.1 How to use teaching materials Suggestions presented in this section apply to all types of materials (text, video and audio) and to all the exercises and activities that can be performed using those materials. In general, materials for preparatory exercises should pertain to or be relevant for the topics chosen for role plays or interpreting assignments (see § 5.2). For example, if you choose a role play on Iberian ham, it would be useful to prepare texts, audio recordings and videos about the peculiar features of this ham, the way it is processed, certification of typical products, commercial presentation of typical products and so on. Other examples could be a specific sector of tourism (e.g. museums) or health care (e.g. vaccinations). In addition, it would be advisable to organize knowledge acquisition for trainees from general and background knowledge to more specific information about one topic. If you want to prepare students to interpret during generic medical examinations for routine vaccinations, it would be advisable to prepare materials regarding the organisation of the health care systems of the countries concerned, then provide information about general medicine, and then drill down to the special medical topic at issue (vaccinations). The language register of materials containing general information on the selected topic should not be too formal and specialised, but rather informal and informative. Specialised texts and vocabulary will be discussed below. Real‐life, prepared and ‘tailor‐made’ materials Internet is an invaluable source of materials. It contains all kinds of texts, ranging from discussion forums, videos, specialised conferences to tutorials, audio files, etc. Audio materials can also be extracted from videos. In addition, different software can be used to process or edit any kind of written audio and video materials in different ways, an issue we will discuss in greater detail further on. It is also possible to adapt (prepare) real‐life materials to any level of difficulty using IT tools. This is a highly recommended solution vs. ‘tailor made’ materials. Commercial texts or videos created by companies or by public authorities give access to their specific way of communicating. It is essential for interpreters to understand their clients’ communication style and communicative intentions. These are determining factors for successful communication that go beyond purely linguistic or terminological aspects. It is important to know not only the words our clients use, but above all why they use them and what they want to achieve. This is why practical exercises based on real materials have an added value. Multi‐purpose materials Another good strategy is to use the same material for a variety of exercises. For example, an audio file can be used not only for note‐taking, but also for summarising or other spoken activities which, in turn, may become materials for further practice. All materials, therefore, should be suitable to develop different skills such as information restructuring, memorization, acquisition of specific vocabulary, reformulation, and so on. 144 Directionality All the exercises described in the following sections can be used both in a single language (e.g. language A>language A, or language B>language B or language C>language C, and so on), in language pairs or in any language direction (A>B, B>A, C>A, A>C, etc.). Initially working in a monolingual mode is very useful to activate students’ resources in their native language and/or train their B language while making cognitive efforts such as active listening, information restructuring, memorising, quickly searching for synonyms, etc. After trainees have performed some exercises in a single language, they can switch to bilingual activities for instance sight translation of a text (B>A), memorising and reformulating an audio recording (C>A) or summarising the content of a video (A>C). It is also possible to work alternating directionality e.g. by translating a short text/audio/video into one language (A>B) and the next into another language (A>C), alternating two working languages for each paragraph of text or audio/video sequence. It is advisable to create parallel materials in all the languages involved in your training, in order to be able to alternate them and/or develop other materials from them. It would be recommended, as mentioned above, to start working with monolingual exercises (to 'warm up the engines') and then move on to bilingual materials, and use them into the passive and active languages (B/C>A and A>B respectively). Regulating the length of exercises Deciding the duration of an exercise is very important. In principle, 2 minutes of audio and video materials may initially be sufficient for advanced interpreting students and professionals. For self‐ training, it depends on the level of the trainees’ skills (if they do not have much experience in acquiring interpreting skills, 1 minute may be enough to start with, and then they could progressively increase the number of minutes). However, the length of an audio or video for an exercise should also be measured on the basis of information density and the delivery speed (see below). Considering an average speed of delivery (110‐120 words per minute) and an orderly flow of information without too many figures and proper names, the recommended duration of exercises is up to 2 minutes in the early stages. This duration can then be gradually be extended. In the case of longer audio and video files, it is always possible to pause them and proceed bit by bit until the end. As far as written material is concerned, it would be advisable to start with no more than 250 words, or in the case of longer texts, you may split the text into different parts and use them for different exercises (first paraphrasing then sight translation, for instance, and alternate these two activities throughout the text). Weighing contents and information density Informative materials implicitly entail a lower flow of information, since concepts are usually presented along with explanations. We suggest that you use this type of material at the beginning of your training. These materials are suitable for memorisation exercises, for example, and to identify relevant vocabulary or keywords of the topic at issue. More specific materials contain less descriptions and a greater amount of concepts and details. Let us assume you want trainees to work on the vaccination system in Spain. An example of the first type of text could be “La importancia de las vacunas”18 which is more general and less detailed than a second type of text entitled “Calendario de https://www.riojasalud.es/ciudadanos/catalogo‐multimedia/vacunaciones/la‐importancia‐de‐las‐ vacunas?showall=1&limitstart 18 145 vacunaciones AEP 2018”,19 where students are faced with a medium/high level of specialised content without hardly any description or redundant information. Level of lexical difficulty The same suggestions provided above apply to the level of lexical difficulty. Informative/dissemination materials are suitable for paraphrasing and reformulation exercises, or to find lexical equivalence, while a medical leaflet can be useful to get familiar with specialised terminology or jargon. It is interesting to note that informative materials about public services can sometimes generate difficulties when they present generic descriptions of the national health system, the public administration system or terminology referring to the local organization of services in a given country: when transferring them to another language, and therefore another system, it is sometimes possible to resort to equivalences or, in their absence, to a descriptive explanation; this is the case for the terms “centros de salud” and “ambulatorio” in Spanish. These terms cannot be transferred into another language unless one is acquainted with the Spanish national health care system. Lexicon may convey culture‐bound content and there is no way to convey that content unless you are familiar with it. Activities focusing on lexicon should take this aspect into account. Other difficulties Speech rate is probably one of the most frequent causes of difficulty for an interpreter. Interpreting any type of text about any subject is usually more difficult if it is delivered at a fast rate (over 120 w/m), especially if read out. The speed of delivery should always be carefully considered when using audio and video materials. The nature of the voice, its tone and intonation are other important factors to take into account when designing exercises. It would be a good idea to vary them as much as possible so that trainees get used to working with different types of voices, be them more communicative or less communicative, clearer or less clear. While widening the range of voices as much as possible is advisable, it is also very important to expose trainees to different accents. This is an extremely important factor, especially when working with languages spoken by native speakers from many different countries or even by non‐natives. A variety of materials with a variety of accents would be ideal for preparatory exercises. Another issue to consider is the quality of sound: technologies do not always provide a good sound quality, both over the phone and in videoconference. Furthermore, callers or operators may find themselves speaking on a line with background noise and other sound inputs. It is therefore necessary to "re‐educate" the trainee's ear to work with poor sound quality or background noises which may make understanding harder (but not impossible!). This situation can be simulated by introducing background noise. Audio materials recorded outdoors can be useful for this purpose. Videos with an echo or reverberation are also useful to reproduce the sound conditions of large rooms. Finally, it is also possible to prepare poor quality written texts. From time to time It can be useful to present trainees with poorly drafted texts to add a further level of difficulty to a text for sight translation without specific lexical difficulties, for example. In this case, a greater cognitive effort is required, both in monolingual reformulation and in sight translation. 5.1.2 Types of preparatory activities The preparatory exercises based on the materials developed within the framework of the SHIFT project are manifold and varied. What follows is a recommended set of them: ‐ 19 Scanner Reading: it prepares for sight translation. The trainee takes a quick look at the text to identify the most important pieces of information and key points. http://vacunasaep.org/profesionales/calendario‐de‐vacunaciones‐aep‐2018 146 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Paraphrasing: it is very helpful to enhance lexical fluency and find lexical equivalence. Sight Translation: this is an excellent preparatory exercise. Selecting syntactically "smooth" texts will help trainees to quickly identify and render syntactic structures and find lexical solutions to transfer the text into another language. Informative texts are very suitable for this type of exercise. Sight translation involves moving from written to spoken text, from a one‐dimensional visual input to three‐dimensional orality (linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic). It is an ideal exercise to learn how to make a text more communicative (“oralising” a text) and to improve trainees’ use of their voice and intonation. Memorising and Reformulating: these two activities can be performed using a written text, an audio recording or a video, and they can be practiced in monolingual or bilingual modes. Cloze: it can be performed with written or audio materials. Different kinds of cloze can be prepared: deletion of connectors, keywords, words, word‐groups. Cloze exercises can be produced with audio materials by replacing a deleted word with a “beep” sound using software such as Audacity. The range of possibilities with written materials is wider, because students have the full text in front of them and can read previous and following paragraphs before filling the gap. Keywords: this is a useful exercise to identify the constituents of written, audio or video texts, and grasp their conceptual pillars. This exercise usually works like an "X‐ray of the text", since keywords are usually the most difficult to replace or reformulate and they are part of the deep structure of the text. Summarising: this is a useful exercise to speed up the identification of the basic units of content of an audio, video or written text. It helps save time, learn how to select important information as opposed to secondary information in any mode (monolingual or bilingual) and with any kind of material. The exercises of summarising, keywords and reformulation (in monolingual or bilingual mode) train and enhance memorisation abilities which combine several cognitive efforts such as: active listening, sorting and organising information (distinguishing between fundamental/primary and less relevant/secondary information), selection of key words and content structure. It is also interesting to work on non‐verbal communication with video or audio material. In this case, the activity should only focus on identifying all the non‐verbal aspects of a video or audio excerpt. This is usually an interesting exercise, which can be interspersed with other activities requiring a greater cognitive effort. It is always useful and interesting to "measure" the trainee’s ability to identify what non‐verbal inputs contribute to determine the meaning(s) of a text. 5.1.3 Using written texts As suggested, there are several ways to work with written texts during preparatory activities: a written text is not only useful for sight translation, it can also be used for active reading (voice training or warming‐up, text oralisation), monolingual reformulation, identification of key points, use of specific lexicon, and so on. The possibility to use an “alternate” text was also mentioned before. This kind of exercise would be recommended, for example, to train bidirectionality and fast language switching after each speaking turn, as it happens in a telephone or video conversation. The written text could be split into 2 columns, as follows: SHIFT in Orality is an Erasmus+ 3‐year project funded by the European Commission in 2015, within Key Action 2: Strategic Partnership in Higher Education. 147 A seguito della globalizzazione e del continuo sviluppo e miglioramento delle Information and Communication Technologies, la lingua parlata viaggia attraverso nuovi dispositivi e media. Similar trends can be observed in the field of spoken‐ language interpreting where, alongside traditional onsite interpreting ‐ where interpreters and speakers share the same space ‐ remote interpreting is spreading through the use of telephone and videoconferencing. È pertanto necessario ripensare e proporre nuovi modelli teorici della comunicazione orale, della comunicazione mediata dall’interprete, e rivedere gli approcci correnti alla didattica dell’interpretazione. Alternatively the paragraphs can be translated and presented in a regular page format but written in two languages: SHIFT in Orality is an Erasmus+ 3‐year project funded by the European Commission in 2015, within Key Action 2: Strategic Partnership in Higher Education. A seguito della globalizzazione e del continuo sviluppo e miglioramento delle Information and Communication Technologies, la lingua parlata viaggia attraverso nuovi dispositivi e media. Similar trends can be observed in the field of spoken‐language interpreting where, alongside traditional onsite interpreting ‐ where interpreters and speakers share the same space ‐ remote interpreting is spreading through the use of telephone and videoconferencing. È pertanto necessario ripensare e proporre nuovi modelli teorici della comunicazione orale, della comunicazione mediata dall’interprete, e rivedere gli approcci correnti alla didattica dell’interpretazione. Another interesting exercise based on a written text is the following: half of the trainees’ group selects key points by extracting fragments or sentences from a text. These are then rearranged in a different order; the other half of the group (absent during the first part of the exercise) then re‐orders and “re‐ constructs” the text properly. 5.1.4 Using video materials Videos are excellent to start preparatory exercises. It is advisable to start working with “active listening” to identify key‐points and/or keywords, then move on to reproducing the previously memorised content using the keywords for each idea or piece of information provided in the text or simply making a brief summary of each one of them. Another interesting exercise based on videos is the identification of non‐verbal information, as suggested above. It would be interesting to select a video and record its audio separately to obtain a "twin" audio file. By listening to the audio first and then to the video, trainees can check what non‐ verbal information they were able to identify in the audio file and what additional non‐verbal 148 information can be extracted from the video file. It is also useful to identify whether the audio file alone was sufficient to fully understand the content or not. You can also play the video without volume and ask students to try and extract as much information as possible from the visual input only. If you wish to use a long video (10/15 minutes, for example), it can be split into sections and used for different kinds of exercises. Let us take the example of an interview: questions and answers can be presented one by one, and students can be asked to summarise them first, then to identify keywords, or reformulate them in another language. Another possible exercise with an interview can focus on inferencing: after providing a briefing on the context of the interview and on the interviewer and interviewee, the trainer could play only the answers and ask students to formulate the questions. Or else, the trainer simulate a bilingual interview with the person in the video by asking them questions and then playing the video for answers. 5.1.5 Using audio materials Audio materials can be accelerated, segmented, slowed down in order to increase or reduce the level of difficulty in many ways. Videos can be used as audio recordings turning the projector or screen off or asking trainees to close their eyes and listen. In this case, you should select videos that hardly make any reference to the visual inputs they contain. Audio materials should also vary in terms of quality (clear audios or audios with background noises, or audios with variable quality/volume, intermittent, etc.). Learning to quickly identify and grasp non‐verbal communication is extremely useful for would‐be remote interpreters: trainees can be asked to focus on paralinguistic elements or on other aspects which determine the choice of different interpreting approaches (speed, voice, empathy or lack of it, feelings such as pain, fear, etc.). As mentioned above, you can also work with cloze exercises using an audio recording, which can be prepared in various ways: by deleting grammar or syntactic elements that usually cause difficulties in a given language (e.g. por/para, ser/estar for Spanish), or lexical elements, including the deletion of some keywords. If you find or record a video or audio text in several languages (such as the video series “Cosa è la protezione internazionale”20) you can use Audacity or a similar software to create your recording in two languages (fragment A, fragment B, fragment A, fragment B, etc.) to work on bidirectionality and language switching as it happens with turns of talk in telephone and video conversations. 5.1.6 Other materials: the classroom What a student or teacher is saying can become training material for another student, as a back translation to check whether the rendition (A>B) was complete. The classroom is an amazing source of training materials: for instance, while one student is doing sight translation, you can ask half of the trainees’ group to follow the text on the screen and check the accuracy of the contents relayed, while the other half can close their eyes or turn around, and focus on the output only, i.e. noting non‐verbal features, assessing voice control, fluency, clarity and the quality of the language (i.e. appropriate use of grammar, syntax, etc.). 20 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLiSHk‐rSeg 149 5.2 Role‐play simulations Elena Davitti, Sabine Braun ‐ University of Surrey One of the objectives of Intellectual Output 5 is to create role‐play (RP) outlines to simulate remote interpreter‐mediated interactions for telephone and video. The present section briefly outlines the approach taken to develop such materials, and offers guidance for different user groups on how to design and use the materials developed. In particular, these guidelines are designed for: - Interpreting trainers interested in how to teach remote interpreting and organise hands‐on activities geared towards teaching students how to operate efficiently in a remote interpreting scenario; - Interpreting students who may use this training material to practise in their own time and among themselves with a view to finetuning their remote interpreting skills; - Practitioners who may or may not have had direct experience of remote interpreting and wish to expand their knowledge of this interpreting mode for their continuous professional development; - Role‐players acting out during the role‐play activity, with a view to making the simulations a realistic and close to real‐life as possible, thus maximising the efficiency of training. After a brief definition of role‐play activity, the section will proceed to describing the RP material developed within the SHIFT project in terms of themes covered (i.e. macro‐topics and specific scenarios within each), classification into different levels of difficulty (i.e. intermediate and advanced) and different types of RP developed (i.e. scripted and non‐scripted, § 5.2.2 and 5.2.3). Finally, § 5.2.4 will focus on how to organise the discussion and (self‐)reflective analysis that needs to complement interpreting practice. 5.2.1 Characterising the role‐play material Role‐plays are very widely used tools in interpreter education to promote collaborative learning by emulating and enacting real‐life situations. RP outlines come in different formats, and represent versatile material that can be used in the classroom to engage students in hands‐on practice, but also outside the classroom, to promote additional and independent practice. To allow participants to engage in natural interactions, mirroring what may happen in real‐life remote interpreting situations, the RP developed are mostly based on prototypical scenarios in telephone and video remote interpreting respectively. These scenarios were provided by the two companies involved in the SHIFT project, i.e. Dualia for telephone remote interpreting and Veasyt for video remote interpreting. A full list of scenarios can be found in Appendices I and II, which can be used as a source of inspiration to develop further RP outlines. In terms of topic, these scenarios have been broadly categorised into four main groups: - - BUSINESS: includes a wide range of communicative situations, from trade fair encounters, business encounters to job interviews. HEALTHCARE: includes instances of doctor‐ or nurse‐patient communication, different types of encounters, from routine checks to specialist visits, as well as health‐care related communication, ranging from changing an appointment with the doctor to asking a pharmacist for advice. ADMINISTRATIVE/LEGAL: this label covers an even wider range of possible communicative situations, from immigration‐related situations, for instance how to apply for a residence permit or asking for information at the job centre, to lawyer‐client consultations to police interviews. 150 - EMERGENCIES: this category mostly applies to telephone remote interpreting and covers primarily healthcare‐related situations, such as calling an ambulance following an accident, but may also concern calling the police in case of a missing person or to report someone. A more specific breakdown of selected communicative situations included under each group is provided in § 5.2.4, alongside a short description of each specific scenario. In terms of configurations, scenarios can be divided into two‐point or three‐point calls. Both terms refer to situations where the interpreter works from a remote site (e.g. an interpreting hub): the difference lies in the location of the primary participants. Two‐point calls are used in situations where the primary participants are together (e.g. a doctor and a patient in a hospital, with an interpreter connected remotely either via phone or via video link). Three‐point calls are used in situations where all participants are located in different places and are connected either via phone or, more rarely, via video link. Each RP outline comes with a suggestion for a suitable configuration to be implemented during the simulation. When planning this kind of activity, it is important to consider some spatial, technical and organisational dimensions: for instance, where to place participants, their seating arrangement, the layout of the room(s) in which the RP will take place, the environmental conditions in the room(s) (e.g. acoustics, background noise, lighting) and what equipment to use (e.g. for video remote interpreting, devices may range from PCs to tablets and mobile devices, where different screen sizes and mobility may have a considerable impact on the unfolding of the communication). Some scenarios may also lend themselves to both telephone and video remote interpreting communication (see § 5.2.4); it is therefore possible for trainers to adjust the configuration to ‘try out’ different set‐ups and discuss their implications in class. In terms of format, the outlines developed can be divided into two main types: - SCRIPTED RPs: all turns to be enacted by role‐players are fully scripted and ready to be read out by role‐players during the simulations. Some guidance on how to best enact this type of RP is provided in § 5.2.2. NON‐SCRIPTED RPs: these outlines provide specific briefs for each participant in the RP, including the interpreter. Each brief provides a characterisation of the roles to be enacted, some information on the general purpose and content of the encounter, information about the interlocutor and possible aspects/questions to be addressed. Some guidelines on how to best enact this type of RP are provided in § 5.2.3. Both types of RP come with a scenario description which outlines the main characteristics of the specific situation, how many participants are involved, where they are meeting and why and information on the configuration, if relevant. Before embarking on enacting a remote interpreting RP scenario, however, it is important for participants to be at ease with role‐playing as a practice. To this end, trainers may wish to double‐check and provide students with the opportunity to engage in a ‘dummy’ RP (face‐to‐face) first, in order to practise role‐playing in general. Furthermore, preparatory activities and briefings need to be integrated in the exercise, as they are essential to the success of the simulation. In terms of level of difficulty, scripted RP scenarios have been divided into two main levels, namely INTERMEDIATE and ADVANCED, in order to expose learners to increasingly complex scenarios, thus aiming to deepen their (self‐)awareness and ability to develop adaptive skills. No beginner level has been created, as it is assumed that interpreting students or practitioners engaging in remote interpreting training have already acquired the interpreting skills necessary to handle basic communication in a dialogic setting. The idea is to acquire additional competences to be able to 151 operate efficiently and develop adaptive strategies when interacting though technology, be it telephone or video, which poses extra layers of challenges to the communication. Secondly, and related to the previous point, is that the expression level of difficulty does not only cover content‐ related challenges. When it comes to deciding whether a script belongs in the advanced or intermediate level of difficulty, three main dimensions need to be considered: - - linguistic dimension: refers to density, speed, length and technicality of language used, register shifts, coherence and clarity (or lack thereof) of what it being said, and other aspects related to the topic discussed and the way in which it is discussed; interactional dimension: refers to issues that may have an impact on the unfolding of the dialogue, which may be linked to the set‐up (configuration, spatial organisation of participants in relation to the camera and to each other that may affect gaze/eye contact and access to embodied behaviour, lighting), use of artefacts (visibility of documents or other objects used in interaction), number of participants (and potential problems related to how to refer to them in an unambiguous manner, overlapping speech), opening/closing of the encounter; affective dimension: refers to the tones and intentions conveyed by the participants (e.g. tension, intentional deceit, reticence, persuasion) and well as by specific features of the scenario (e.g. emergency situation). The challenges encompassed within each dimension are closely related to the phenomena identified by SHIFT (Intellectual Output 4), which have been found (1) to occur in remote interpreting given the specific set‐up of this type of encounter and/or (2) to be magnified in these encounters. These were initially established on the basis of microanalytical investigations of video‐recorded interaction. More challenges and issues may arise while the RP is being enacted. These spontaneously occurring challenges should also be integrated in the post‐simulation discussion (see § 5.2.5). The most advanced scripts my present challenges pertaining to some or all of the dimensions listed above. Finally, non‐scripted RPs have not been divided into levels of difficulty, as it is up to the role‐players to decide what challenges they wish to include. This is an important aspect that trainers would need to bear in mind when designing new materials or making variations to current ones. 5.2.2 Scripted role‐plays As explained in the previous section, this type of RP outline includes fully scripted turns for the role‐ players to read out and enact during the simulation. Some important elements need to be borne in mind to make sure that the interaction unfolds smoothly and that the RP is performed in the most natural and ‘authentic’ way possible. First and foremost, it is key to instruct role‐players to avoid ‘just reading out’ turns. Ideally, the script should be provided in advance so that role‐players can familiarise themselves with the content and then enact it in the most natural way possible. Using different wording to convey the same idea would not affect the unfolding of the communicative event. Conversely, a poorly read out performance may affect the delivery of the information (e.g. monotonous intonation, hesitations, not ‘making sense’) as well as have an impact on gaze dynamics (as the role‐player would be looking at the script rather than at his/her interlocutor). It is important to remind role‐players that scripts only provide a skeleton to guide the interaction and enact content that reflects what could be said in real life events. Some divergence from it would not affect the overall success of the simulation. Some turns of phrase used in the scripts are deliberately convoluted (e.g. long and redundant turns), confusing or unclear (e.g. in the use of pronouns), offensive or abrupt (e.g. to create tension or convey reticence) or marred with grammatical mistakes (e.g. to reflect a non‐native speaker proficiency). This is important to reflect the variety of speakers and responses that can be given in different situations. 152 Role‐players need to be instructed very clearly about how to immerse themselves in the situation and understand its purpose and the function different turns, some of which are deliberately not polished. There is scope for some improvisation during the simulation, which may increase the authenticity of the simulation. Linked to the previous point is also the importance of reminding role‐players to adjust their turns and responses to the rendition provided by the interpreter. There may be cases of mistranslation or ambiguity in the interpreter delivery – in a natural scenario, a participant would probably ask for clarification in these cases, or respond to the input received (rather than to what is written on paper). Raising awareness of this fundamental aspect is another key component to ensure ‘authenticity’. In order to ‘guide’ speakers in their delivery, some meta‐comments have been added in bold and square brackets within the script. These are supposed to act as ‘stage directions’ for the role‐players, for instance to indicate when the speaker is expected to address the interpreter directly or not, how/when to use specific props or artefacts, what tone to be used and what it is supposed to convey (for instance a talkative lawyer, a distressed witness, etc.). These indications are important for the role‐player and their function needs to be clearly explained to them in advance of the simulation. When relevant, some ‘props’ have been added to the simulation to reproduce the use of objects or artefacts, which is likely to happen in a variety of contexts (e.g. specific equipment to carry out a medical test, documentation to read out from during a meeting, form to fill in during the encounter). 153 Last but not least, variation has been introduced in the way the interpreter is introduced. Depending on the specific communicative situation, the interpreter may or may not be given a short brief of what the encounter is about; they may also be addressed a direct question from one of the speakers, at which point, time needs to be allowed for the interpreter to react and adjust the following turns accordingly; speakers may be addressing the other primary participant directly or use the third person, which also represents a potential challenge for the interpreter. Managing the opening and closing represent one of the phenomena that may be magnified in remote interpreting, so it is important to introduce variation in the way they are handled to expose learners to different challenges. These can be signalled in the script using the same formatting as the meta‐comments described above, i.e. in bold and within square brackets. 5.2.3 Non‐scripted role‐plays Non‐scripted RP outlines were developed to facilitate practice and engagement in content creation on the part of role‐players taking part in the simulations. Each RP outline consists of a general description of the situation, briefs for the speakers including descriptions of their roles, the purpose and content of the meeting or encounter, and suggestions for what should be addressed or points that should be raised. The role‐play outlines also provide a short brief for the interpreter; these may be more or less detailed depending on the specific communicative situation. Similarly to scripted RP outlines, non‐scripted ones are inspired by real‐life situations and therefore aim to mirror what would be likely to happen if an interpreter found him/herself working in such scenarios. One of the main points when designing this type of RP script is to provide enough information for substantial and challenging RPs while, at the same time, being careful not to guide or restrict the scope of role‐players’ research or preparation and initiative. Role‐players acting as speakers should also be made aware that they can set up a more detailed brief for the interpreter once they have agreed on the content to be discussed during the interaction. Another element to stress is that these outlines are meant to serve as a starting point for inspiration, but that variations can be included for making the task content and/or delivery more challenging for the interpreter and, more generally, to increase the authenticity of the scenario played out. 154 These RP outlines can be used by trainees and practitioners as self‐study resources, i.e. to simulate remote interpreting interactions among themselves in small groups. Another possible use is for interpreting trainers to assign them as homework, i.e. give specific roles to students acting as role‐ players and ask them to enact the scenario in class a few days later. Students will only be given the instructions relevant to their own role; it is also important that role‐players agree on some points to be covered during the interaction, without scripting the actual turns. More than one group of students can be assigned the same communicative situation to then analyse and compare the different ways in which it is enacted, what challenges arise for the interpreter and what coping strategies can be developed to overcome them. 5.2.4 Overview of created role‐plays A total of 53 RP outlines per language pair (i.e. English‐Italian, English‐Spanish, Spanish‐Italian) were created including 35 scripted RPs (21 for telephone, 14 for video), 18 non‐scripted RPs (6 for telephone, 6 for video and 6 for both scenarios). Each category if further subdivided into intermediate and advanced level as well as into four macro‐topics (i.e. business, healthcare, administrative/legal, emergencies). SCRIPTED ROLE‐PLAYS – TELEPHONE INTERMEDIATE BUSINESS BIZ_ice cream export_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A franchisee of an ice‐cream parlour contacts the head of an ice‐cream company in a different country to ask for information about how to increase their offer of ice‐cream and desserts. BIZ_job interview_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A human resources manager interviews a foreign applicant for a position. BIZ_trade fair_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A marketing director calls a trade fair organiser from a different country to ask for information about how to take part in the fair. HEALTHCARE HTH_changing appointment pregnant lady_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign pregnant patient needs to change an appointment with her gynaecologist due to unexpected symptoms. HTH_vaccination check_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign mother goes to a health centre with her baby to check on her baby’s vaccinations. HTH_wound control after c‐section_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign patient goes to the hospital to check her wound after a c‐ section. ADMINISTRATIVE/ LEGAL ADM_museum information_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign tourist with a disability (wheelchair and hearing impair) calls a Museum for some information to plan his/her visits. ADM_residence permit_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign lady enquires about the first steps to obtain a residence and work permit with the relevant office. ADM_wedding enquiry to embassy_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A young couple calls the Embassy to enquire about the procedure to follow to get married in a foreign country. ADVANCED BUSINESS BIZ_cheese exporter_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT Two company representatives from different countries talk about strategies to expand the import cheese offer. 155 BIZ_company acquisition_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT Two company owners from different countries explore the reciprocal interests and financial conditions for a potential acquisition. BIZ_price negotiations ham_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A supplier needs to negotiate the price of his order with a producer from a different country. HEALTHCARE HTH_consent for bowel obstruction_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A surgeon explains to a foreign patient the procedure to obtain their consent to carry out exploratory surgery for bowel obstruction. HTH_follow up palliative care_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT An oncologist calls an elderly foreign patient to follow up on a palliative treatment prescribed to the patient. ADMINISTRATIVE/ LEGAL ADM_asylum application_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A pregnant woman who fled from her country of origin needs to obtain information and start procedures to seek political asylum. ADM_insurance company_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT An employee working for the customer service of an insurance company talks to a foreign client who is unhappy with the service provided by the company. EMERGENCIES EMERG‐HTH_ambulance for diabetic patient_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign person calls an ambulance because their spouse is diabetic, has fainted and lies motionless on the floor. EMERG‐HTH_ambulance for golf ball_EN‐IT /EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign person calls the emergency services because his/her wife/husband has been badly hit on her/his head by a golf ball. EMERG‐LEG_domestic violence_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign woman calls a helpline to report to be the victim of domestic violence, of an act of verbal and physical assault. EMERG‐LEG_lost child_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign parent calls the police as they have lost their children on a beach. EMERG‐LEG_lost friend_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A tourist calls the emergency number because their friend has disappeared. SCRIPTED ROLE‐PLAYS – VIDEOS INTERMEDIATE BUSINESS BIZ_job interview_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A human resources manager interviews a foreign applicant for a position. BIZ_wine trade fair_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A wine tourism promoter talks to a company representative from a different country at a trade fair about tools and accessories for wine and spirits. HEALTHCARE HTH_medical certificate_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign patient goes to a local surgery to get a medical certificate for undertaking sport‐related activities. HTH_pharmacist advice_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign patient goes to a local pharmacy to ask for advice about their symptoms and about how to register with a GP. 156 ADMINISTRATIVE/ LEGAL ADM_Job centre_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign person goes to a local Jobcentre to obtain all the necessary documentation to start working in the country. ADM‐LEG_witness statement_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A police officer takes the statement of a foreign witness who was the victim of assault and attempted theft. ADVANCED BUSINESS BIZ_set up a business_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign person goes to an accountant to enquire about the first steps to set up a business. BIZ_wine producer_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign food and wine journalist visits the owner of a small wine production company to know how the wine is produced, what equipment is needed, and the financial aspects of running a niche business. HEALTHCARE HTH_brain aneurysm_ES‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign patient meets a neurosurgeon that explains what happened to him/her a few days before, when s/he suddenly felt ill. HTH_eye test_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign person goes to the optometrist for a routine eye check. HTH_flu vaccin_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A retired foreign person talks to a GP about the flu vaccine. ADMINISTRATIVE/ LEGAL ADM‐LEG_lawyer‐client consultation_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign client seeking legal advice about divorce meets a lawyer for an initial consultation. LEG_suspect interview_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A police officer interviews a foreign person who has recently been arrested for assaulting his girlfriend. EMERGENCIES EMERG_labour pain_EN‐IT/EN‐ES/ES‐IT A foreign woman is at the emergency ward because of early labour pain and needs to talk to a nurse and midwife. NON‐SCRIPTED ROLE‐PLAYS ‐ TELEPHONE BUSINESS BIZ_copyright_EN A visiting lecturer calls the Patent and Trademark Office in the country they are visiting to find out information on the procedure required to patent an invention. HEALTHCARE HTH_fertility clinic_EN A foreign patient has been called by a fertility clinic to get an appointment for the first consultation to examine the possibility of in vitro fertilization. ADMINISTRATIVE/LEGAL ADM_town twinning_EN A Culture Councillor and an International Relations Councillor from different countries need to plan an event to celebrate the official town‐twinning of their respective places. ADM_fine with rented car_EN A foreign client talks to the employee of a car rental company about a fine that s/he has recently received. EMERGENCIES EMERG_car crash_EN A foreign passenger calls the emergency service as they have just had a car crash. 157 EMERG_fire brigade_EN A retired foreign person calls the firefighters because their cat has climbed up a tree and is not coming down. NON‐SCRIPTED ROLE‐PLAYS ‐ VIDEOS BUSINESS BIZ_job interview_EN A human resources manager interviews a foreign applicant for a position. BIZ_travel company‐hotel manager discussion_EN A travel company representative talks to a hotel manager about some guests’ dissatisfaction with the service provided in the hotel. HEALTHCARE HTH_doctor‐patient CHF consultation_EN A patient who has recently been diagnosed with congestive heart failure (CHF) and high blood pressure returns to the doctor as s/he is worried that his/her condition may be worsening. HTH_doctor‐patient orthopaedic consultation_EN A doctor interviews a patient who suffered in a ski accident involving somersaulting down a steep slope during his vacation. ADMINISTRATIVE/LEGAL ADM_subtenancy_EN A landlord/lady talks to their foreign tenant as they are unhappy with the fact that the tenant does not separate his/her waste. ADM‐LEG_immigration interview_EN An immigration officer interviews a dentist who wants to apply for a skilled worker visa. NON‐SCRIPTED ROLE‐PLAYS – TELEPHONE AND/OR VIDEO BIZ_luxury hotel event_EN BUSINESS Two young foreign musicias meet the manager of a hotel to propose a music event. BIZ_new store opening_EN A store manager talks to the CEO of the company they work for about the imminent opening of a new flagship store in a different country and how to organise the inauguration day. HEALTHCARE HTH_family control_EN An Erasmus student goes to a Family Planning Centre for young people with the intention of seeking counselling on the various options available for contraception. HTH_physiotherapist‐patient interaction_EN A foreign patient with a fracture‐dislocation of the shoulders or humerus visits a physiotherapist to enter a rehabilitation programme. ADMINISTRATIVE/LEGAL ADM_residence permit_EN A citizen goes to the City Countil in a different country to ask for information about how to register in the city. EMERGENCIES EMERG_bag snatching_EN A foreign couple visits the police station in a country where they are on holiday to report a stolen bag. 5.2.5 (Self‐)Reflective activities Post‐simulation observation and reflection are key elements of training, and need to be systematically integrated into any study session. Discussion can take place at two different moments, namely before and after practice. 158 Before the actual simulation, it is important to explore what the expectations are in terms of issues or challenges that may occur during the interaction. Starting from the brief provided for each specific communicative scenario, some brainstorming is useful to establish what participants think would be the main challenges arising at various levels: - - language and content (i.e. topic being discussed, technicality, use of register) interaction between main parties and interpreter (e.g. whether it is a collaborative or adversarial type of encounter, whether it may involve the use of objects or artefacts, how the interpreter is planning to intervene to handle turns, any affective issues potentially influencing communication unfolding) interaction of all participant with and through the technology (e.g. configuration of the participants, what the interpreter can or should be able to see, what constraints may be due to the environment where the encounter is taking place) In order to maintain a certain level of engagement on the part of the observing audience during the simulation, a set of (video/telephone) observation sheets have been developed (see Appendices III and IV). These documents use the taxonomy developed as part of the SHIFT project to provide a ‘checklist’ of phenomena to be considered when engaging in a remote interpreting activity. Notes need to be taken in relation to specific phenomena that are relevant to the scenario being observed; these can be about unexpected challenges arising during the interaction, strategies implemented by the interpreter and any other issues that requires discussion/improvement in relation to specific phenomena. Taking notes during the performance will enable participants to jog their memory and being able to quote specific examples during the post‐RP discussion. Structuring notes according to specific phenomena will enable a more structured development of the discussion, as well as a clear identification of ‘remote focal points’, i.e. what were the most problematic phenomena linked to the management of communication in each remote interpreting scenario. Following the identification of specific problems and challenges, the discussion needs to proceed to an evaluation of the strategies implemented by the interpreter (if any) and of possible alternative strategies that could have been adopted. Discussion will also engage the interpreter and role‐players who actually took part directly in the simulation, with a view to understanding why specific moves were implemented and decisions made on the spot. Ultimately, an assessment of how successful the overall communication was will need to be collaboratively achieved. Based on these insights, the communicative scenario could be replayed with some adjustments to see whether alternative coping strategies emerge. This type of post‐simulation reflective activity is an important step towards creating a ‘repertoire’ of recurring issues and potential solutions that will eventually lead to the development of adapted strategies. Creating expectations and checking them against a set of autonomously‐identified problems/challenges/strategies that occurred during the interaction is complementary to practice and is essential to develop sensitivity towards remote interpreting‐specific communicative and interactional challenges, thus representing a key component of remote interpreting training. 159 Appendix I: Prototypical scenarios of telephone remote interpreting (Dualia) The following scenarios are Dualia’s most common scenarios in telephone remote interpreting within the Spanish context: 1. Public field (community interpreting) 1.1. Emergencies 112. 112 is the telephone number for emergencies in Spain, it can be used to ask for medical advice (treatment, medications, side effects…), to request a doctor, the Police, firemen, ambulances… The most common calls include: ‐ Accidents in the highway, where the service provider will ask if there is any injured person, if the vehicle is an obstacle for the traffic, if the driver placed the triangles, the exact kilometre, the name of the highway, the number of people, if there is another car involved, if the driver called the insurance company… ‐ An ambulance to a specific address because someone fell down at home, is very ill, a friend is drunk at the exit of a disco, children with high temperature, premature delivery, death, suicide… ‐ To get the presence of the Police because of noisy neighbours, dogs, fights… ‐ To alert the Police because someone disappeared, any fraud, the car was removed… 1.2. Hospitals The doctors face foreign patients in all specialities (Trauma, Ophthalmology, Gynaecology…) but most of the calls come from the Emergencies because the access to a doctor via ER in a hospital is a “Universal right” in Spain, therefore, many foreigners go to the Emergencies as locals go to see the GP. 1.3. Health Centres Many calls come from the consultations but many others from the phone service for doctors/nurse appointments and in this period of the time, for flu vaccination. 1.4. Social Services Immigrants shelters, domestic violence, homeless people in the street, social accommodation, abused children. 1.5. 016 016 is the number for abused women (domestic violence from men against women) and there are two main scenarios: A woman calls to ask for information about the service. A woman calls to ask for help because she is being attacked. 1.6. Local Administration Many City Councils include the service of telephone interpreting to deal with administrative issues like fines, ID, residency, certificates… 1.7. Police The Police avoids telephone interpreting but uses it to know what has happened before the interpreter comes to the Police Station. 2. Private field 2.1. Exports and Imports 160 Many exporting and importing companies use the service to request non‐payments, a specific administrative/legal form, to interview a job applicant, negotiations… 2.2. Insurance Many foreigners leave in Spain and call their home/car insurance because of car accidents, water/gas leak, a storm destroyed the tiles of the roof, lost the keys and had to brake the lock of the door, a broken window, a broken water boiler, flood… 161 Appendix II: Prototypical scenarios of video remote interpreting (Veasyt) The following scenarios are Veasyt’s most common scenarios in video remote interpreting within the Italian context: BUSINESS 1) A Spanish (or British) company, together with its lawyer, has initiated debt collection proceedings for a missed payment by an Italian company in bankruptcy. The Spanish (or British) company and its lawyer had to rely on an Italian lawyer to deal with their cases in Italy. For the video call, all participants are in different locations: the Italian lawyer in his/her office, the foreign company representatives in their own office and the interpreter in their own office. 2) A Tuscan winery has among its customers a distributor specialized in the hotel sector in Spain or the UK. Email communications are usually successful, but for the first business meeting with the customer, the sales manager does not feel comfortable using English as a lingua franca and prefers to be assisted by an interpreter. He/She decides to book a remote interpreter via videolink. 3) A small company producing organic Italian oil is in contact with German retailers to export its oil to Germany. This would be the first time selling outside Italy, an excellent opportunity to expand their market. The first meeting is scheduled to take place in Frankfurt, but for a small company this will involve a considerable amount of investment. In order to try to reduce costs, they prefer not to turn to an interpreter in presence, and decide to use a video‐interpreting service, each from their own office: the CEO and a sales manager of the Italian company from their office in Italy, the CEO and a German salesman from their office in Germany and the interpreter from their own office in Italy. 4) A Spanish person wants to open a shop in Italy and goes to an accountant with an interpreter connected via video call to get an idea of regulations, taxes and initial bureaucracy. The Spanish person uses the video‐interpreting service from their smartphone. 5) A foreign family has moved to Italy and needs to meet an insurance agent to insure their car and the house. They use video‐remote interpreting using a tablet for their appointment with the agent, who offers them various insurance plans. 6) An Italian startup has caught the attention of a foreign investor for an investment in Venture Capital (VC). For the first meeting, the potential investor wants an interpreter to learn more about the start‐ up and the team. The video call has three participants, each in their own office. 7) A foreigner goes to a telephone centre to find out about home telephone+internet rates. The foreign person asks for the support of an interpreter because he/she has been in Italy for a short time and does not have a good command of Italian. They also use the interpreter when signing the contract. 8) A Spanish company needs repeated consultations with an Italian lawyer for closing a rent contract for a warehouse to be used? as a storage centre for the distribution of shoes in Italy. HEALTHCARE 1) The service is provided by the hospital, in the ob‐gyn clinic. A patient has to undergo a check‐up but does not want the interpreter to see her. The monitor/webcam is oriented to the patient's face, and the video‐interpreting service can be provided. 2) Eye test of an elderly foreign lady who has to undergo cataract surgery and who cannot hear very well. The lady asked for the intervention of an interpreter and is accompanied by her daughter. During the video call, the interpreter translates what the doctor says to the daughter, and the daughter repeats what the interpreter says to her mother. 3) The emergency service receives a call regarding an accident in which a foreign person was involved. He/she is conscious but has several leg fractures. The hospital sends an ambulance to help the person; the ambulance staff has a tablet and initiates a video call with the interpreter. The interpreter’s services proves very useful for the doctors but, above all, for the patient who fears they may lose their limbs. 4) A foreigner goes to the pharmacy because they have been feeling dizzy for a few days. The pharmacist measures their blood pressure and finds it is very low. 162 5) A foreign person goes to the hospital for blood tests. They have never taken blood tests in their lives, because they lived in a very poor country. The nurse believes that it is appropriate to involve the interpreter to provide thorough explanation of what is going to happen. At the end of the test, the patient faints. 6) An Italian family hosts a foreign student in their family for a cultural exchange in which their son is participating. One evening the student feels bad, has a short breath, tremors and dizziness. The family calls the doctor who immediately goes to their home. After a few minutes, the symptoms disappear. It was probably a panic attack. For this delicate situation, the Italian family decides to be helped by an interpreter in video call. 7) A foreign person goes to the dentist for an operation. The dentist tries to communicate through gestures to tell the patient what to do, but he/she cannot do it while operating. He/she then starts a video call with an interpreter on the screen next to the dental chair. The interpreter remains connected for the duration of the operation and interprets the dentist’s instructions. At the end of the operation, the dentist, provides information on the postoperative procedure, how to keep the wound clean and how to allow proper healing through the interpreter. 8) A foreign person goes to the dietician to start a treatment. It is their first meeting; first, the dietician collects information on the patient, and then moves on to the examination. At the end, the dietician prepares nutrition and workout instructions for the patient. 9) A foreign person who recently moved to Italy needs a sports medicine screening to start attending tennis classes. 10) A tourist goes to the hospital (emergency service). They are feeling sick after having dined at a fish restaurant. The nurses first asks them some routine questions in Italian, but the patient cannot answer them; they therefore decide to start a video call with an interpreter. ADMINISTRATION 1) A foreign citizen goes to the municipality of their town for information on the taxes to be paid for garbage. The municipality has a tablet for video‐interpreting services. 2) A foreign citizen who has moved to Italy recently (without Italian citizenship but with a residence permit) goes to the hospital Public Relations Office to ask for what exemptions they are entitled to. 3) A tourist goes to the police to report a theft: they had left their bag unattended in the car for a few minutes and someone broke a window and stole the bag that contained wallet, cell phone and other objects. 4) A foreign university student is in Italy for a yearly scholarship and needs to open a bank account in the Italian bank on which the university relies. He goes to the designated bank branch to activate this account, but the employees do not speak any foreign language. The bank clerk contacts a video‐ interpreting service from his computer. 5) A foreign person goes to a real estate agency to look for an apartment to rent. The agency explains to the client that they need various documents to certify that they are staying in Italy legally, since he comes from a non‐EU country. They also need data of their bank account in their country of origin. 6) An Italian person is at the reception of a hotel abroad and wants to ask for information and explain the allergies they have. The receptionist also explains the services offered by the hotel, such as guided tours of neighbouring cities, city tours, excursions to nearby mountains and rivers, and other entertainment activities. 7) An Italian person is in a museum abroad. Through a video interpreting service, the museum staff can explain the services available for the entire museum, the cost of the guide and audio guide, conventions for city tours, etc. 8) A foreign person goes to an employment centre to find a job. At the centre he/she has an interview regarding personal information, work experiences, working positions he/she would like to cover. He/she has to use an interpreter because he/she does not feel confident with their level of Italian. 163 Appendix III: Observation sheet for telephone remote interpreting SHIFT in orality: SHaping the Interpreters of the Future and of Today Summer School 11‐16 June 2018, University of Bologna at Forlì Hands‐on session 1: Remote Interpreting in business settings (phone) 1. Job interview: interviewer and interviewee in the office; interpreter connected via telephone (two‐point call) 2. Trade fair: marketing director and trade fair representative; interpreter connected via telephone (three‐point call) 3. Setting up a business: businessman and company owner; interpreter connected via telephone (three‐point call) Note your observations for each role‐play here (Note good strategies as well as issues that require discussion/improvement in relation to the phenomena listed below) Managing the opening E.g. how is the initial ‘meet and greet’ phase handled? Is the suitability of the set‐up checked? Are any ground rules for communication management established? Do you think a different way of handling this phase could have improved communication? Managing spatial organisation E.g. how is the participants’ (seating) arrangement in relation to the camera/microphones? Does the interpreter make adjustments to their own positioning? Does the interpreter try to get participants to make adjustments? Do you think a different configuration would have improved the communication? Managing turns E.g. how is turn‐taking handled? Are there any instances of long, multi‐unit turns? If so, what resources are used for chunking? Are there any instances of overlapping talk? If so, how are they handled? Are there any instances of dyadic sequences? Reference to primary participants E.g. are there any shifts in the use of pronouns? Does the use of pronouns and other ways to address participants cause any disruption or ambiguity? 164 Prosodic resources E.g. are there any instances of over‐emphasis or voice modulation? Do you notice any marked use of prosodic resources? If so, what do you think is their function and impact on the communication? Embodied resources E.g. are all the participants audible? Is the way in which they are positioned in relation to the equipment conducive to acoustic clarity and to a smooth unfolding of the interaction? Are any adjustments being made and, if so, are they successful? Comprehension problems E.g. are any resources used by the interpreter to signal potential problems? How do participants react to it? Are there any ‘marked’ sequences characterised by impoliteness, tension, disagreement, expression of concerns? If so, how are they handled? To what extent do you think remoteness may be a factor contributing to mishearing, affecting understanding and hindering comprehension? Handling objects/artefacts/unexpected events E.g. how are objects handled during the simulation? Does any problem or unexpected challenge seem to emerge in relation to this? If so, how does the interpreter cope with it? What are the implications of these choices for the unfolding of the interaction? 165 Cognitive resources E.g. do you notice any problems which may be related to reduced sense of presence and remoteness of the situation? For instance, is there a tendency to elaborate on the part of the interpreter/the participants? Do you notice any instances of lack of self‐monitoring or signs of stress and fatigue (e.g. lapses, blackouts, inaccuracies, hesitations)? Managing closing E.g. how is the final phase handled? Do you think a different way of handling this phase could have improved communication? 166 Appendix IV: Observation sheet for video remote interpreting SHIFT in orality: SHaping the Interpreters of the Future and of Today Summer School 11‐16 June 2018, University of Bologna at Forlì Hands‐on session 1: Remote Interpreting in business settings (video) 1. Job interview: interviewer and interviewee in the office; interpreter connected via video link 2. Trade fair: wine tourism promoter and member of sales team at the trade fair; interpreter connected via video link 3. Setting up a business: fiscal expert and client in the office; interpreter connected via video link Note your observations for each role‐play here (Note good strategies as well as issues that require discussion/improvement in relation to the phenomena listed below) Managing the opening E.g. how is the initial ‘meet and greet’ phase handled? Is the suitability of the set‐up checked? Are any ground rules for communication management established? Do you think a different way of handling this phase could have improved communication? Managing spatial organisation E.g. how is the participants (seating) arrangement in relation to the camera/microphones? Does the interpreter make adjustments to their own positioning? Does the interpreter try to get participants to make adjustments? Do you think a different configuration would have improved the communication? Managing turns E.g. how is turn‐taking handled? Are there any instanced of long, multiunit turns? If so, what resources are used for chunking? Are there any instances of overlapping talk? If so, how are they handled? Are there any instances of dyadic sequences? Reference to primary participants 167 E.g. are there any shifts in the use of pronouns? Does the use of pronouns and other ways to address participants cause any disruption or ambiguity? Embodied resources E.g. are all the participants visible/audible? Is the way in which they are positioned in front of the camera conducive to a smooth unfolding of the interaction? Are any adjustments being made and, if so, are they successful? Comprehension problems E.g. are any resources used by the interpreter to signal potential problems? How do participants react to it? Are there any ‘marked’ sequences characterised by impoliteness, tension, disagreement, expression of concerns? If so, how are they handled? To what extent do you think remoteness may be a factor contributing to mishearing, affecting understanding and hindering comprehension? Handling objects/artefacts/unexpected events E.g. how are objects handled during the simulation? Does any problem or unexpected challenge seem to emerge in relation to this? If so, how does the interpreter cope with it? What are the implications of these choices for the unfolding of the interaction? Cognitive resources 168 E.g. do you notice any problems which may be related to reduced sense of presence and remoteness of the situation? For instance, is there a tendency to elaborate on the part of the interpreter/the participants? Do you notice any instances of lack of self‐monitoring or signs of stress and fatigue (e.g. lapses, blackouts, inaccuracies, hesitations)? Managing closing E.g. how is the final phase handled? Do you think a different way of handling this phase could have improved communication? 169