Arabic English Translation

Translation of the Qur’an is still a problematic issue for each translator in the Islamic theology, because the Quran has numerous Islamic terms/words that hold multiple or double meanings, which cause problems in translation. These problems are due to the dissimilar translations of puns (tawriyah) and the misinterpretations between the intended meanings of puns with their inherent notions, which could result in a certain amount of ambiguity. and end up translating in superficial sense. This research deals with the challenges of translating the meanings of puns (tawriyah) from the Quran into English. The research corpus is based on several verses (Ayat) selected from the Holy Quran. The objectives of the study are to determine the types of English puns in the Quranic text to identify causes for misunderstanding the meanings of puns in the Holy Quran from Arabic into English.Keywords: The Holy Quran, puns misunderstanding, delabastita strategies, reasons for misinterpreting the Quran.

The study aimed to investigate (a) the effect of digital games, songs, and flashcards on vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EFL preschool learners and (b) the young learners" performance on mid-course tests of vocabulary with different topics. The participants included 350 preschool female learners in Oshnaviyeh, a town in Western Azarbaijan Province and were divided into three tablet, song, and traditional groups. Pre and post-tests of vocabulary and four mid-course tests based, on the learnt vocabularies, were administered during the research. The materials also consisted of a digital game, 16 songs, a structured student book, a workbook, and 60 flashcards. The analysis of the data revealed that there was no significant difference in the vocabulary knowledge of preschool learners who learnt vocabularies via games, songs, and flashcards. The results also showed that there was a significant difference in the three groups" mid-course tests with different topics. The findings r...

The present study aimed at shedding some light on Vermeer‟s (1989) Skopos theory in translation as suggested by Vermeer along with the application of this theory to an English literary text taken from Miller' s Death of A Salesman (1947) and its Arabic translation done by a Syrian Arab translator called Omar Jabak. Besides, the article will try to examine the weaknesses of Skopos theory in terms of its applicability to literary texts in particular. The researchers adopted the analytical descriptive approach in this small-scale qualitative study to prove the inapplicability of the Skopos theory principles to the above-mentioned English play and its Arabic translation. The research data and findings revealed that Vermeer's Skopos theory had somehow little applicability to translated literary works because literature and its translation, in general, and drama, in particular, have meaningful or „skopos‟ in people's social, economic and political lives.

The current use of podcasts, as a new channel to input knowledge, has effectively been promoting listening comprehension which consequently has increased the acquisition of target language. The objective of the present study is to investigate the effects of video-podcasts integration on listening comprehension. The twelve-week quantitative study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test post-test design. Samples included in both the control and experimental groups were 120 English major male undergraduates from a University in Saudi Arabia. The Findings of ANCOVA analysis showed that the video-podcast group significantly outperformed the control group on the post-test. The findings imply that video-podcasts are useful resource for enhancing EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Article visualizations:

This study aims to identify the nature of students’ difficulties in written expression in the Departments of English and Arabic at Al-Quds University. It also aims to identify the impact of each of the variables gender, level, department and achievement on the degree of students’ writing difficulties in both departments. To achieve the objective of the study, a questionnaire was designed comprising 32 items applied to the study sample which consisted of 128 students from the Departments of Arabic and English at Al-Quds University in Palestine. The results of the study showed that students’ difficulties in written expression were fain in degree; they also revealed statistically significant differences in the averages of students’ difficulties in written expression due to gender in favor of females, and the presence of statistically significant differences in the averages of the difficulties in written expression due to level, and in favor of third and fourth year students; there were...

The study focuses on the acquisition of English prepositions among students of Iraqi secondary school in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Participants in the study were (20) students all of them at sixth level. The researchers studied the students’ responses to the given test to investigate the problematic prepositions of English language that Iraqi English as foreign language (EFL) learners have in their everyday and academic usage; and investigate the way that EFL Iraqi learners differentiate between using English and Arabic prepositions. The major finding in this study is that the main reason for all the errors is the dominance of the mother tongue (MT) on English language (EL), especially with Arabic language having a syntactic structure when imposed on EL that too with Arabic meaning on EL. The dominance and influence of one’s MT is a major challenge in using the EL in the right way by Iraqi EFL learners. In a subconscious manner, Iraqi EFL learners tend to use or impose their MT’s synt...

Maria T. Sanchez University of Aberdeen UK ABSTRACT Interpreting trainees usually need some time and a lot of practice before they fully realize that note-taking in consecutive interpreting is only an aid to memory and a result of fully understanding what has been said, without paying too much attention to how it has been said. One full implication of this process is that a near-native knowledge of the foreign language(s) is indispensable, given the fact that a poor understanding of what the speakers are saying is incompatible with remembering it and, for that matter, even with taking proper notes. The purpose of this article is to insist on the need to start interpreting training after the foreign language and culture have been rally assimilated and to make sure that students realize from the start that note-taking is not an end in itself. Two practical examples are discussed, one from a business interview and one from a medical situation.

Despite the impact of online social media language and applications on translation theory and practice, Arabic translation studies are so far largely based on what is referred to as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) with little regard to colloquial and spoken forms of Arabic which represent the main bulk of online social media. As thus, this study argues for the importance of incorporating social media language and colloquial forms of Arabic into translation studies and addressing the sociocultural aspects (including, in particular, the dialectical and linguistic changes) that impact the translation accuracy and reliability. This study explores the role of linguistic variation as reflected on the use of intensifiers in Egyptian and Libyan Arabic Dialects on the translation accuracy and reliability. For the purposes of the study, a corpus is designed of 12, 723 Twitter Posts on the Egyptian and Turkish intervention in the Libyan Conflict. Four intensifiers were identified. Two of these co...

AWEJ Volume.5 Number.2, 2014   
                                                                                                                                                            Pp.187 - 205
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     




Common Practice Errors Related to Syntactic Structures in English-into-Arabic
Translation



Mohammad Atawi Saraireh
English Department
German-Jordanian University
Jordan



Abstract
This paper handles common practice errors related to syntax in English-into-Arabic translation. The researcher collected material from student translations at BA and MA levels, translated texts, and subtitled or dubbed movies and documentaries. The researcher categorized the data and provided a discussion and interpretation of the errors. He found out that such errors can be attributed to several factors: incompetence in the SL or the TL or both, translator’s attitude, misunderstanding of modification (what constituent modifies what), shallow encyclopedic knowledge of the translator, ignoring the context, and influence of dialects.
Key words: errors, translation, Arabic, English, syntax, competence

Yasamin Hemmat (Corresponding Author) Department of English Language and Literature, Khatam University Tehran, Iran ABSTRACT Ubik by Philip K. Dick shows a hyperreal society in which everything is simulated and virtual and even the demarcation between life and death is indistinct. Therefore, the world of Ubik depicts the violation of the ontological boundary. Characters in this novel live in a simulated and virtual life of the half-life which is the symbol of the ordinary situation of people in the actual life since media and proliferation of signs and information construct a new media reality which is even more real than real or “hyperreal”. Although characters are in search of reality and a transcendental signified in order to maintain their identity, they are unable to achieve what they are searching for and they do not know whether they are undergoing the real or a simulation. Thus, they crave to fix the reality and their identities through the marketplace. Consequently, they pu...

The current use of podcasts, as a new channel to input knowledge, has effectively been promoting listening comprehension which consequently has increased the acquisition of target language. The objective of the present study is to investigate the effects of video-podcasts integration on listening comprehension. The twelve-week quantitative study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test post-test design. Samples included in both the control and experimental groups were 120 English major male undergraduates from a University in Saudi Arabia. The Findings of ANCOVA analysis showed that the video-podcast group significantly outperformed the control group on the post-test. The findings imply that video-podcasts are useful resource for enhancing EFL learners’ listening comprehension.

Şirin Okyayuz Department of Translation and Interpreting Bilkent University Ankara, Turkey ABSTRACT Although there are a large number of books and articles on subtitling concentrating on different aspects of the endeavour, less attention seems to be devoted to the subtitling constraints and the possible strategies to be used in film and television series genres. For example, the subtitling of historical drama TV series, which have become very popular and reach a wide audience across the world, is a rarely studied endeavour. The following article is an effort to present a framework for the subtitlers of historical drama in consideration of the constraints of subtitling, as well as the features of the genre itself. Following an introduction about historical distance in translation, the linguistic, cultural and discoursal elements used in the production of the genre, the constraints of subtitling are exemplified with a comparative analysis of a historical drama and its subtitles into E...

Mohammad Ahmed Al-Jabali King Saud University Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Abdul-Aziz bin Abdulrahman Abanomey King Saud University Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the factors that can influence the peer review process of translated books at King Saud University. A 4-domain questionnaire was distributed electronically to collect the data necessary to answer the questions of the study. The mean scores showed that the “Review ethics” domain came first, and “Experience of the reviewer” came last. ANOVA and MANOVA showed that the variables of gender, academic rank, major, and review experience did not reveal significant differences, while experience in translation variable revealed significant differences. It was concluded that the review of translated books does not differ considerably from the review of studies published in per-reviewed journals. Unlike a research paper, a translator of a book does not have to draw findings and conclusions. The findings of ...

n previous research (Yus 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012), a distinction was made, in a general classification of jokes, between those that are based on the speaker's manipulation of the audience's interpretive steps leading to an interpretation of the joke, and those whose main source of humor lies in the reinforcement or invalidation of commonly assumed social and cultural stereotypes. However, interpretive strategies for obtaining interpretations work in parallel to the processing of cultural information and also of mental frames, schemas and scripts that are retrieved by the hearer in order to make sense of the text of the joke. In this chapter, a more comprehensive picture of joke interpretation (the Intersecting Circles Model) is proposed to account for how some or all of these interpretive procedures may be manipulated for producing humorous effects.

The present study was an attempt to explore the vocabulary learning strategy preferences among Iranian EFL learners. It also investigated the relationship between their vocabulary learning strategy use and vocabulary size. To this end, 90 Iranian EFL learners were selected as the participants of the study based on convenience sampling at Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran. The instrument used in the current study was Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) consisting of six different categories of vocabulary learning strategies. The other instrument was Nation’s vocabulary size test which assessed the learners’ lexical knowledge. In order to address the research questions, Freidman Test and Spearman Correlation were conducted. The results revealed that the most frequently used vocabulary learning strategy subgroup was metacognitive and the least frequent one was social strategy. Besides, no significant correlation was found between vocabulary size and vocabulary learning ...

Dr. Razieh Eslamieh Nillofar Javankhah Islamic Azad University, Parand Branch Iran ABSTRACT The present paper studies diverse procedures related to Venuti‟s strategies of domestication and foreignisation in Farsi dubbing and subtitling of the English movie, Warcraft directed by Duncan Jones. The procedures of both domestication and foreignisation were studied and statically analysed for the purpose of exploring the film translation method (dubbing or subtitling) which is closer to targetlanguage-culture and the one which is closer to source-language-culture. In other words it was intended to explore which translation strategy (domestication or foreignisation) dominates dubbing and which one dominates subtitling. The tertiary purpose was to compare the reasons of differences in dubbing versus subtitling on the one hand, and the reasons of differences of the target text from the source text. The statistical analysis revealed that in dubbing, cultural equivalence is the most frequently...

The paper aimed to investigate the role of translator's religious ideology on his/her translation of the Nobel Quran by focusing on English translations of four verses from Surah An-Nisa (Women), Surah Al-Ahzab (The Confederates) and Surah An-Nur (Light) which are mostly referred to with the aim of imagining Islam as a religion that oppresses women and abuses their rights. To this end, four English translations of the Nobel Quran by four translators from Muslim, Christian and Jewish backgrounds, with different ideologies, were selected as the corpus of this study. The research applied Farahzad's model of translation criticism (Based on Fairclough's approach to CDA) as the theoretical framework of this paper. Based on this framework, English translations of selected verses were compared with their original versions at the textual level and paratextual level. The result of this study demonstrated that it is difficult to conclude that there is relationship between translato...

As an attempt to shed more light on the relationship between critical thinking skills and the students’ performance on EFL learning activities, the present study investigated the relationship between critical thinking skills of Iranian EFL young learners and their performance on textbook activities. To this end, 120 female students between 9 to 12 years old filled out the Persian version of critical thinking skills questionnaire (Naieni, 2005). Besides, the participants answered the selected activities from second language English series such as Family and Friends, Let’s go, and Hip Hip Hooray textbook series. The findings of the study revealed that critical thinking skills and EFL young learners’ performance on the activities were significantly correlated for the students of various groups of language proficiencies. More specifically, it was revealed that there was not any statistically significant relationship between beginner and intermediate learners’ critical thinking skills an...

A majority of African student translators manifest weakness at two major levels: the conceptual and productive. From different perspectives, this is either termed 'language' or 'cognitive' problem. This dual view is a pointer to the tacit but intractable bond between language and cognition. The language↔cognition↔translator education relationship that begins with the mother tongue (L1), as well as its impact on the African translation learner constitutes the essence of this write-up. Working from the hypothesis that the cognitive development of the African child is adversely affected by the lack of a 'veritable' L1 blueprint, this reflection qualitatively substantiates this claim, and then concludes that mother tongue inclusion in the African school syllabus through appropriate language planning is, more than before, an imperative, given that as a contextual L1, it engenders and nurtures cognitive skills which are indispensable in translation learning and pra...

ABSTRACT The article gives an analysis of the demographic material for North Sa´mi in Norway during the last 150 years, and compares it to key tendencies in some of the Uralic languages of the Soviet Union. The present linguistic landscape can be predicted with great accuracy from Friis’ survey of 1860. At that time, bilingualism among the Norwegians was widespread in parishes with predominantly Sa´mi or Finnish (Kven) population. During the assimilation process, the preservation of Sa´mi was not due to the size of the Sa´mi population, but rather to its relative size. Today’s Sa´mi communities are the ones with the least Norwegians one and a half centuries ago. A key factor in the language shift process has been mixed marriages. The Soviet data show a greater degree of language preservation, especially for the Nenets and Mari. The difference is partly a result of the Soviet language policy, but also to the degree of contact between the minority and majority populations.

Translating concepts of setting can be challenging when their cultural, historical, and geographic contexts are remote from the translator’s experience. Landscape is an essential factor that reveals a great deal of the culture of pre-Islamic Arabia, which is distant in place, historical framework, and literary tradition from its translators. This article examines the importance of a translator’s awareness of the communicative function of source text references to landscape to adopt appropriate translation strategies. The article presents a case study of a verse line alongside a corpus of nineteen English and French translations. The source text, the Mu‘allaqa of Imru’ al-Qays, names three mountains in Arabia, and space and distance are core themes in the verse line. Comparison is both synchronic and diachronic: at the same time that every translation is compared to the source text, it is also compared to other translations. Prose translations are also examined separately from verse ...

The aim of this study was to identify the dominant translation procedures applied in the translation of Maitreya Buddhist text entitled „紥根与深耕 from Mandarin to Indonesian. Using descriptive qualitative method and content analysis, the data of the study was analysed to achieve the stated aim. The research primarily attempted to seek answer to research question-what was the most dominant translation procedure applied in the translation of 紥根与深耕 into Indonesian? The data included 141 phrases. The data were analyzed by using Miles and Huberman‟s (1986) Data Analysis Model. Vinay and Darbelnet‟s theory of translation procedure was used for identifying the procedure applied. The result showed that of the data, 23 included literal translation procedure, 6 borrowing, 20 calque, 31 equivalence, 9 modulation and 52 transposition. It is expected that the finding of this research will be helpful for the Buddhist translators in translating religious text keeping in mind the outcomes of this rese...

This paper discusses the importance of feedback, especially the implicit negative feedback in learning process to enhance language development. The definition of the feedback and the types are elaborated in relation to how the types contribute in improving the comprehension and the acquisition of second language in the process of communication with native and non-native speakers of English by providing comprehensible input and modified output. The theory of implicit negative impact which focuses on three significant areas: (1) type of implicit negative feedback, (2) the critical role of noticing to increase the knowledge and the acquisition by demonstrating research studies to prove, and (3) the key role of interaction to increase the acquisition and the comprehension are detailed with supportive literature. The paper also briefs some limitations encountered while applying such type of feedback in the learning process.

This paper investigates problems surrounding translating and/or transliterating, examines a case study, and discusses how a poet/lover uses different appellations to purposefully address his beloved, which include the beloved’s actual name and three different heteronyms that are examples of metonymy. The repetitions of the actual name and metonymic processing are functionally effective in expressing the poet’s feelings. As proper names, metonymic appellations possess the power of clarification, which not only establishes meaning-making but also the speaker’s appeal and perspective, thus contributing nuance and salience. By conducting a comparative critical assessment of a corpus consisting of French and English translations, this study demonstrates how cultural and pragmatic losses are incurred in the process of conveying the verbal metonymic signs of the original culture to a different culture. The outcome is a misinterpretation of the source text’s literariness and its pragmatic f...

This article tests the workability of the principle of relevance at the heart of relevance theory by evaluating a corpus of eighteen English and French translations of verse 33 of the Mu‘allaqa of Imru’ al-Qays. This verse embodies a conventional metaphor reflecting a stereotyped image in Arabic poetry, which communicates its ground to the source language (SL) reader by means of inference. The verse challenges the translator to render the metaphor into an equivalent trope and to reflect the ground of the comparison, either by inference or by reference. By comparing the translations in the corpus to the source text (ST) and to each other, this study draws conclusions as to the translatability of a conventional metaphor. Chronology and mode of discourse are taken into account in the evaluation process so as to categorize the translations and the shifts exercised in them. This evaluative yardstick is used to measure resemblance and relevance by taking into account both the ST and the t...

The preface as part of a book's paratext is of great importance in terms of introducing the book to the reader. In the context of a translated book, it is essential because there are two elements to expand on: the source text (ST) and the translated text (TT). This paper aims to conduct a comparative analysis to understand more about: 1. The elements and features of the preface and also 2. The visibility/invisibility of the translators and 3. How this affected the decision making in the translation process. The proposed research question is how does the relationship between invisibility, social practice, and the translator's identity/role combined impact translators' choices in writing prefaces for translated literary works? The framework which this study employs includes Fairclough's (1992) Three-Dimensional Framework for Analyzing Discourses (with the wider social and cultural contexts specifically highlighted). Furthermore, Venuti's invisibility theory about t...

Digital learners, who are now entering schools and universities, have learning expectations, styles, and needs different from past students. Today’s Gen-Z communicates in a language that older generation may not fully understand; the aforementioned learners have a vernacular of their own. It’s an ever-evolving language of interpretation and expression, an interactive approach to learning, creating and responding to information through a complex montage of images, sound, and communication. Students are pushing learning into a new dimension. It’s a mistake to continue to try to teach these learners in time-worn ways. Their choices of communication need to be diversified to encompass visual interpretations of texts and historical figures. Vast challenges have arisen and the impact of technology on the socio-economic landscape is becoming more significant. Gen-Z takes advantage of the enormous resources of the Web, transforming what they find there by using digital technologies to creat...

Although the generative study of Second Language (L2) Acquisition has remained constant in its goal of characterizing the underlying representations of learners since its inception, the field has experienced growth and change in many areas. Some changes have involved the use of different methodologies, while others have involved developments and shifts in theoretical focus. Among the latter, we can note an increased focus on the acquisition of syntactic features rather than on parameters (see Slabakova, Leal, & Liskin-Gasparro, 2014, for further discussion of this matter). Although the shift of focus from parameters to features is not new, spurred as it was by early research suggesting that the parametric approach could not account for the empirical data (White, 1985, 1990), it has certainly been a gradual one. More recently, the formulation of hypotheses such as the Interpretability Hypothesis (Hawkins & Hattori, 2006; Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007) and the Feature Reassembly Hyp...

Recently, the educational field has adopted a new route for improving and increasing the way we learn languages, particularly English language, through using social networking services such as; Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and other technologies in writing skills. In this respect, this paper discusses how ESL classroom can apply the social networking services or Web 2.0. Technologies effectively to promote learners' writing skills. The paper first details research studies about the characteristics of two social networking, Blogs and Wikis, to show the importance of implementing Web 2.0 technologies in writing skills. Then the benefits of applying social networking services as an essential approach for teaching and learning writing skills in L2 are presented. Paper also discusses the counter –argument, as opposite perspectives, that applying social networking websites is not always considered as a proper method to improve writing skills due to many reasons which may lead decreasin...

A. J. Hassan Ajman University UAE ABSTRACT This work seeks to prove that one instance of text disconnect in English-Arabic translation is the outcome of the intervening gap between the translated text opening and its remaining parts. This, in turn, is attributed to the work of four interrelated factors: text structure, connectivity, word choice and sentential reordering. Accordingly, a linguistically inclusive and balanced approach has been designed to deal with this problem. In addition, it is undeniable that other components of the text jointly could help solve the problem in question. After having analyzed the data, the work discovered that Arabic translators pay no or less attention to the above quadrilateral combination.

Digital learners, who are now entering schools and universities, have learning expectations, styles, and needs different from past students. Today's Gen-Z communicates in a language that older generation may not fully understand; the aforementioned learners have a vernacular of their own. It's an ever-evolving language of interpretation and expression, an interactive approach to learning, creating and responding to information through a complex montage of images, sound, and communication. Students are pushing learning into a new dimension. It's a mistake to continue to try to teach these learners in time-worn ways. Their choices of communication need to be diversified to encompass visual interpretations of texts and historical figures. Vast challenges have arisen and the impact of technology on the socio-economic landscape is becoming more significant. Gen-Z takes advantage of the enormous resources of the Web, transforming what they find there by using digital technolog...

... contrast with these, Abu-Deeb concludes his structuralist analysis of the Mu 'allaqat by claiming that ... vision in the culture of man, his universe, and the ultimate questions facing him ... The mostcommon view adheres to the popular belief presented in page 15 above, concerning the ...

The current use of podcasts, as a new channel to input knowledge, has effectively been promoting listening comprehension which consequently has increased the acquisition of target language. The objective of the present study is to investigate the effects of video-podcasts integration on listening comprehension. The twelve-week quantitative study employed a quasi-experimental pre-test post-test design. Samples included in both the control and experimental groups were 120 English major male undergraduates from a University in Saudi Arabia. The Findings of ANCOVA analysis showed that the video-podcast group significantly outperformed the control group on the post-test. The findings imply that video-podcasts are useful resource for enhancing EFL learners’ listening comprehension. Article visualizations:

Using translation in foreign language teaching has been a rather controversial topic in recent times. While translation was generally accepted as a regular teaching method up to the 18th century, the trend slowly reversed to a merely monolingual approach during the 19th century. In the last two decades, however, the bilingual approach is again given more attention and possibilities of combination are increasingly being discussed.
This paper aims at demonstrating how integrating translation into L2 learning by the example of Arabic can help learners to better learn the language, master its particularities and grasp a better understanding of the language right from the beginning, especially when it comes to syntax, grammar, and phraseology. For autonomous learning, relevant motivation theories in teaching and learning are highlighted and a strategy in order to benefit from translation in self-learning is being suggested.

Sakwe George Mbotake Advanced School of Translators and Interpreters (ASTI) University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon ABSTRACT The effect of globalization and the increasing demands on the job market have induced many countries in the world to introduce reforms aimed at streamlining their higher education curricula. The demand for a more flexible workforce with high skills (competencies) in problem solving, team work and project management has been on the rise in recent years and the incorporation of competency-based curriculum has emerged as a necessity in the higher education sector. However, in spite of the growing popularity for the need to prepare graduates for the workplace, the actual academic culture and formative processes are yet to be tailored to address these new exigencies. The aim of this paper is to analyze in what manner competence and competence-based learning are being currently implemented in the Advanced School of Translators and Interpreters (ASTI) of the University of...

Recently, the educational field has adopted a new route for improving and increasing the way we learn languages, particularly English language, through using social networking services such as; Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and other technologies in writing skills. In this respect, this paper discusses how ESL classroom can apply the social networking services or Web 2.0. Technologies effectively to promote learners' writing skills. The paper first details research studies about the characteristics of two social networking, Blogs and Wikis, to show the importance of implementing Web 2.0 technologies in writing skills. Then the benefits of applying social networking services as an essential approach for teaching and learning writing skills in L2 are presented. Paper also discusses the counter-argument, as opposite perspectives, that applying social networking websites is not always considered as a proper method to improve writing skills due to many reasons which may lead decreasing...

1. Language as Social Practice: Sociocultural Foundations of Discourse & Learning 2. Neurolinguistics: Rethinking Language in the Flesh 3. Phonology: Why Language Sounds Different to Second Language Learners 4. Phonics and Whole Language: Linguistic Foundations 5. Syntax: English Learners Building Sentences 6. Morphology: Building Words with English Learners 7. Semantics: The Beginning of Meaning 8. Written Language: Historical Developments in Literacy 9. Language Learning: Basic Principles and Debates 10. Learning and Context: Language and Activity 11. Functions of Language: Using Language around the World 12. Narratives: Living a Narrated Life 13. Language and Identity: Who We are and How We Speak 14. Language Ideologies