Cognitive Translatology

Scientific and Technical Translation (STT) is a highly complex and knowledge-intensive field of translation and cognitive linguistics is a usage-based linguistic framework which provides powerful theoretical tools for modelling knowledge organisation and representation in discourse. This book explores the interface between scientific and technical translation studies and cognitive linguistics by discussing the epistemological, contextual, textual and cross-linguistic dimensions of scientific and technical translation from a cognitive linguistic perspective. Particular emphasis is placed on explicitation and implicitation as indicators of the interaction between text and context in STT. The corpus-based investigation of the two phenomena illustrates the complex knowledge requirements pertaining to scientific and technical translation and demonstrates the explanatory power of cognitive linguistics with regard to important textual and contextual aspects of STT.

Please see the translation's home pages in English, Japanese and Turkish in the links. The .pdf file contains preview of the first pages by Can Yayınları.
Kapadokya’da Catra Patralar is the Turkish translation of the Japanese fantastic novel Tsukiyo no Chatora Patora (月夜のチャトラパトラ). It is a children’s book on Cappadocia by Etsuko Shindō, the writer of many other Japanese books on Turkey.The Turkish translation by Turkish Japanologist Esin Esen has been published from Can Cocuk Publications in 2012.
Shindō, Etsuko, Kapadokya’da Çatra Patralar, Trans. Esin Esen, Can Çocuk Publishing, Contemporary World Literature Series, 2012 (Japanese children’s book translated from Japanese,original title: Tsukiyo no Çatora Patora) ISBN 978-975-07-1553-2
Preview of first pages: https://canyayinlari.com/book_data/9789750715532.2_preview.pdf

Este artículo brinda un panorama de los avances en las investigaciones sobre los procesos de traducción e interpretación desde enfoques cognitivos y psicolingüísticos entre 2006 y 2013, con el fin de contextualizar las restantes contribuciones a este monográfico. Ofrece algunas cifras sobre publicaciones e iniciativas y luego se centra en la competencia y la pericia, la redacción, la carga mental y la complejidad lingüística, los avances en los métodos de investigación, la revisión y la metacognición, la cognición más allá del pensamiento racional y consciente, y la recontextualización de la investigación empírica. Para concluir se ofrecen algunas notas sobre las tendencias generales en el área, en las publicaciones de la muestra y en el campo de la edición académica.

This book presents some of the latest theoretical and empirical advances in cognitive translation & interpreting studies. It involves the modes of interpreting, translation,  sight translation, and computer-aided translation. Some chapters propose a new analytical framework for studying keylogged translation processes, a framework that aims to reconcile a sociological and a psychological (Ericsson's) approach for studying expertise in translation, and a pedagogical model of translation competence. Other chapters expand the investigation of cognitive processes by considering the role of emotional factors, reviews, and develops the effort models of interpreting as a didactic construct. The empirical studies in this book revolve around cognitive load and effort; they explore the influences of text factors (e.g., metaphors, complex lexical items, directionality) while taking into account translator factors and evaluate the user experience of computer-aided translation tools.

Translation process research (TPR) is an atheoretical label used to describe research within cognitive translation and interpreting studies (CTIS) devoted to the study of the cognition involved in multilingual mediated communication with written source texts. Research methods are a pivotal issue in TPR, where researchers’ main aim is to develop rigorous, reliable methods to access the evidence of the workings of translators’ minds. Moreover, the drive in TPR for advancing fast and catching up with the pace of other cognitive science disciplines has resulted in a profusion of research topics, data coding, and tools. This chapter provides a snapshot of research methodology in TPR with an eye to identifying limitations, challenges, and opportunities for improvement. After introducing some basic notions related to quantitative and qualitative research, it focuses on three key types of research in TPR: quasi experimental, observational, and the cognitive research of texts. Each type is briefly contextualized and defined in relation to the theoretical paradigm it adheres to, its contexts of application and topics, and the data collection and analysis methods most frequently employed. Core results and critical issues are also discussed. The chapter closes with a few recommendations for practice.

Over the past 15 years, we have seen a steady growth of research in Cognitive Translation & Interpreting Studies (CTIS). One of the paradigms within CTIS, Cognitive Translatology (CT), draws from Situated Cognition and already is an alternative to traditional views on the interface between brain, mind and diverse forms of multilectal mediated communication. One decade after the original presentation of the CT framework, this article aims to clarify and update the notions introduced there. First, the article elaborates on prerequisite concepts such as inter-textuality, meaning, language, and communication from cognitive translatological perspectives. Second, it reviews the nature of translations and translating and presents a précis on CT's disciplinary basics, such as the object of study, research methods and future directions. Altogether, we hope to contribute to dispelling misunderstandings and answer some recurrent questions on the theoretical edifice of Cognitive Translatology.

This paper presents the design of an ongoing PhD project on the concept of culture within cognitive approaches to translation research. The goal is to develop an approach to culture that can be operationalised in empirical research within the framework of Cognitive Translatology. The point of departure is that the notion of culture is best understood as a dynamic construct. After a brief introduction to the cultural turn in translation studies, the paper outlines how culture is conceived of and operationalized in some instances of Translation Process Research and also in some second-generation cognitive paradigms (social and situated cognition). Then the background, rationale and methodological grounds of the PhD project are sketched.

Keywords

culture, cultural turn, cognitive translatology, empirical translatology, situated cognition, social cognition, translation process research

This article offers an overview of some advances in cognitive and psycholinguistic approaches to translation and interpreting process research between 2006 and 2013, in order to provide context to the contributions to this volume. It provides some figures on publications and initiatives and then focuses on competence and expertise; writing; mental load and linguistic complexity; advances in research methods; revision and metacognition; cognition beyond conscious, rational thought; and recontextualized empirical research. The article closes with some notes on the overall tendencies in the area, in the sample of contributions, and in publishing.

Reader-responsibility, an important aspect of Japanese, is a part of a language typology, in which non-verbalized items or ambiguity in a text may be compensated by the reader/ listener for an effective communication. The writer of this article is the Turkish translator of Tanizakiʼs novel Sasameyuki [Nazlı Kar]. In this paper, she explains the method she used for the translation of the semantic and cognitive items of the reader responsibility aspects of the novel, in which she applied cognitive poetics theory and relevance theory (from the point of view implicature and explicature). The study reveals the following results: 1) Translation of the implicit meaning of the reader responsibility aspects (implicature) can be translated into Turkish similarly, but there are cases where pragmatic explicature is necessary. 2) For most of the semantic gaps (implicature) of the Japanese source text, pragmatic explicature is necessary for the Turkish target text. 3) For most of the cognitive items of the Japanese source text pragmatic explicature is necessary for the Turkish target text. This study brings a new approach to the translation of semantic and cognitive items of reader responsibility aspects of Japanese, which helps to solve translation problems and

This book provides a detailed introduction and guide to researching translator and interpreter education.  Providing an overview of the main research topics, trends and methods, the book covers the following six areas: training effectiveness, learning and teaching practices, assessment, translation and interpreting processes, translated and interpreted texts, and professionals’ experiences and roles. The book focuses on explaining the issues and topics researched in each area, and showing how they been researched. 
As the first book to provide a comprehensive overview of translator and interpreter education research, it has important implications to developing its areas at the theoretical and practical levels. In addition, it offers an invaluable guide for those interested in researching translator and interpreter education areas, and in educating translators and interpreters.

• Provides a detailed guide to translator and interpreter education research
• Reviews six main areas of translator and interpreter education research
• Highlights important implications for translator and interpreter trainers
• An essential resource for researching translator and interpreter education



Titles of book chapters
Chapter 1
Translator and Interpreter Education Research: Definition, Areas and Historical Developments

Chapter 2
Translator/Interpreter Training Experimentation Research

Chapter 3
Translation/Interpreting Learning and Teaching Practices Research

Chapter 4
Translation and interpreting Assessment research

Chapter 5
Translation/Interpreting Cognitive Process Research

Chapter 6
Translation/Interpreting Product Research

Chapter 7
Researching Professional Translator/Interpreter Experiences and Roles

Chapter 8
Advancing Translator and Interpreter Education Research

[English note below]

Sin resumen. El artículo aborda las nociones de sentido, evocación, semántica y pragmática, estilo y contexto en su relación con el concepto de significado en las teorías lingüísticas de la traducción.

No abstract. This paper discussed the notions of sense, evocation, semantics vs. pragmatics, style and context in their relation to meaning in linguistic theories of translation

El presente trabajo versa sobre las posibilidades que, en el ámbito de la traducción, abre tanto para la docencia como para la investigación la interconexión entre géneros textuales y pericia. Se tratan primero los conceptos de forma aislada, se comentan luego los problemas que entraña la competencia traductora y, finalmente, se aportan diversas ideas para trabajar los géneros textuales con expertos y novatos, y viceversa. El trabajo con géneros textuales podría acelerar el desarrollo de la pericia, mediante la automatización de los procesos mentales, la facilitación de mecanismos metacognitivos y la posibilidad de que los sujetos actúen en situaciones seudorreales. Se proponen iniciativas científicas que pongan de manifiesto las diferencias sobre cómo aprovechan expertos y novatos los géneros textuales, de manera que pueda profundizarse en esta relación y justificarse con datos empíricos.

Teknolojinin gelişmesiyle birlikte bilgisayar destekli çeviri araçları hızla yaygınlaşmaktadır. BDÇ araçlarından olan çeviri bellekleri, çeviri yaparken çevirmenin harcadığı çabayı azaltmasına yardımcı olan, daha önce çevrilmiş metinlerin kaynak metinlerle bir arada tutulduğu çeviriye yardımcı bir araçtır. Çevrilmesi gereken metinle daha önceden çevrilmiş metinleri karşılaştıran çeviri bellekleri, çevirmenlere farklı eşleşme oranlarına sahip önerilerde bulunarak çevirmenlerin daha tutarlı ve daha hızlı çeviri yapmasını sağlamaktadır. Ancak çeviri belleklerinin çevirmenin harcadığı çabayı azalttığı varsayımı, çeviri piyasasında bulanık eşleşme oranına göre belli indirimler yapılmasını yaygınlaştıran ve çevirmenlerin adil bulmadığı bir uygulamaya yol açmıştır. Bu araştırma, çevirmenlerin çeviri belleklerinde yer alan farklı türdeki eşleşmeleri çevirirken harcadıkları çabaya odaklanmaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı çevirmenlerin harcadıkları çabanın bulanık eşleşme oranıyla değişip değişmediğini ortaya koymaktır. Toplam 14 katılımcı, İngilizceden Türkçeye ve tersi yönde 190 kelimelik iki teknik metni çevirmiştir. Çevirmenlerin çeviri deneylerindeki çabaları ölçülmüştür. Bunun için Krings’in zamansal, fiziksel ve bilişsel çaba kavramları (1986; 2001) ve O’Brien’ın (2008) öznel çaba kavramları ile çevirmenin çabası işlemleştirilmiştir. Zamansal çaba çevirmenin çeviri süresi, fiziksel çaba Levenshtein mesafesi, bilişsel çaba odaklanma sayısı ve ortalama odaklanma süresi ve öznel çaba da düzeltme çabası üzerinden hesaplanmıştır. Veri üçlemesi yönteminin kullanıldığı çalışmada ayrıca, katılımcılarla mülakat yapılmıştır. Nitel veriler içerik analizi yöntemiyle, nicel veriler ise IBM SPSS Statistics programı üzerinden korelasyon analiziyle incelenmiştir. Katılımcı düzeyinde çevirmenlerin harcadıkları çabanın eşleşme oranına göre değişmediği bulunmuştur. Ancak grup düzeyinde, eşleşme oranı arttıkça, her iki çeviri yönünde de, tüm çaba türlerinde harcanan çaba azalmaktadır. Buna ek olarak, mülakatlar sonuçlarına göre, katılımcıların çeviri bellekleri ve indirim talepleri konusunda hemfikir olmadığı görülmüştür.

"Algunos traductores bíblicos modernos (Nida 1964, Schöckel y Zurro 1977, entre otros) fueron pioneros del «giro cultural» (cultural turn, Bassnett & Levefere 1990, Dimitriu 2006) en los Estudios de Traducción (Holmes 1988). Así, surgieron investigaciones que relacionan la cultura con la traducción en una suerte de ecuación cultural (Hewson y Martin 1991) en la que se traduce al Otro (Robinson 1997, Carbonell 1997), existen culturemas (Nord 1997) ante los que el traductor como mediador (Katan 2004) debe enfrentarse en su complicada tarea de actuar como puente (cf. Sächffner y Adab 1995) y ha de disponer de una competencia cultural experta (Witte 2008:143). Como puede apreciarse en este pequeño esbozo, nos encontramos ante un complejo rompecabezas conceptual en el que los árboles no siempre dejan ver el bosque.
Este póster resume los resultados provisionales de una investigación aún en desarrollo que se propone realizar un recorrido por las diferentes perspectivas de la CULTURA en traducción y sentar las bases iniciales para reformular esta noción desde una perspectiva cognitiva. Se divide en dos apartados: en el primero, se traza un breve mapa conceptual sobre la cultura y sus nociones derivadas (referencias culturales, competencia cultural, procedimientos de traducción) en el que se resaltan las principales investigaciones y sus autores. En el segundo, se da cuenta de las definiciones de traducción y de cultura encontradas hasta el momento en un corpus de artículos publicados en Meta. Journal des Traducteurs (2000-2012) así como de instancias metafóricas como traducción como actividad cultural (TRASVASE CULTURAL, PUENTE ENTRE CULTURAS, VIAJE INTERCULTURAL), como PRODUCTO CULTURAL y como HERRAMIENTA SOCIAL que enriquece culturas. Se esbozará una visión panorámica de este concepto esencialmente controvertido (Gallie 1958).

Palabras clave: cultura, traducción, culturema, metáforas, competencia cultural, procedimientos de traducción"

This study represents a contrastive analysis of Michael Ende's poem "Der Lindwurm und der Schmetterling oder Der seltsame Tausch" and its Serbian translation by Spomenka Krajčević titled "Zmaj i Leptir ili Neobična zamena" based on the cognitive-linguistic theory of conceptual metonymy. The purpose of the analysis is to determine in what way the mechanisms of conceptual metonymy may be utilized for the purposes of poetry translation. For this reason, those passages of the translated poem will be analyzed which deviate from the original in such a way that the semantic material of the deviating passages exhibits the characteristics of metonymy, namely a specific conceptual configuration between an Idealized Cognitive Model (Frame) and its parts. The analysis revealed 61 metonymic relationships between the target- and the source text, of which 46 in total (75.4 %) reveal a contiguous relationship between two parts of an ICM, indicating that this metonymic principle of configuration may present a considerably more flexible translation strategy for poetry translation than the substitution of an entire ICM with one of its parts or vice versa.

Вестник Пятигорского государственного университета. 2017. № 3. С. 90-96.

В статье обсуждается ряд характеристик, обычно приписываемых языковой личности переводчика, ошибочных с точки зрения когнитивного подхода и нейрокогнитивной специфики функционирования языкового сознания билингва в целом и процесса перевода в частности. С этих позиций рассматривается типичное для академического дискурса отождествление или, напротив, разведение языковой личности (выраженная через язык целостная личность конкретного индивида в системном единстве всех ее составляющих) и профессиональной идентичности переводчика (лишь один из структурных аспектов его личности), а также не менее типичная квалификация переводчика как носителя элитарной речевой культуры. Обсуждаются перспективы замены термина «языковая личность» термином «семиотическая личность», позволяющим моделировать взаимодействие в процессе перевода различных кодов сознания, не только процессы вербальной формы интерпретации. Показано, что личностно-ориентированный подход предполагает реконструкцию не обобщенного образа некоторого идеального переводчика, а структуры сознания конкретного переводчика, что возможно с позиции субъектного принципа. Рассмотрен ряд факторов, релевантных при подобном моделировании.

The article discusses a number of characteristics commonly attributed to the linguistic personality of the interpreter/translator, erroneous from the point of view of the cognitive approach and the neurocognitive specificity of functioning of the bilingual's linguistic consciousness in general and the translation process in particular. From these standpoints, the identification that is typical for the academic discourse or, on the contrary, the division between the linguistic personality (an integral personality of a particular individual expressed through the language means in the systemic unity of all its components) and the professional identity of the interpreter/translator (only one of the structural aspects of his personality), as well as no less typical qualification of the interpreter/translator as a bearer of an elite speech culture. The author discusses the prospects of replacing the term “linguistic personality” with the term “semiotic personality”, because the latter allows to model the interaction of various codes of consciousness in the process of translation, and not only the processes of the verbal form of interpretation. It is shown that the personality-oriented approach does not assume the reconstruction of a general image of some ideal interpreter/translator, but the structure of the consciousness of a specific interpreter/translator, that is possible from the standpoint of the subjective principle. A number of factors that are relevant for such modelling are considered.

In this article, I take a cognitive translational perspective on the field of specialised translation. To give a brief overview of the field of cognitive translation studies, I will, in a first step, survey the three cognitive scientific paradigms of symbol manipulation, connectionism and situated cognition and I will discuss the influence of these three paradigms on the development of cog-nitive translation studies. The currently dominating cognitive scientific paradigm of situated cognition and the corresponding translational theory of situated translation (Risku 2004) will then serve as a starting point for developing the Cologne Model of the Situated LSP Translator, which aims to give a comprehensive account of the relevant factors influencing the LSP transla-tor’s cognitive performance in real-world translation settings. While discussing the structure and relevant components of the model, I will illustrate potential areas of application as well as pos-sible research perspectives that can be derived from it. The model as presented in this article is in an early draft stage and hence, critical feedback is very welcome.

Several indicators seem to suggest that, through nearly six decades of development, Cognitive Translation Studies (CTS) may be taking shape as an autonomous field of study. The main challenges ahead seem to be building sounder theoretical models and carrying out more rigorous methodological scrutiny. These two strands converge as central themes in the 11 contributions to this special issue of LANS-TTS. To provide a context for theoretical modelling and to frame critical discussions of the methods included in this volume, we first trace the present landscape of CTS and how it evolved so as to test Holmes’ criteria for disciplines: founding new channels of communication and sharing a “disciplinary utopia”. The contributions are arranged into four thematic categories as applied to CTS, namely, scientometrics, framing or reframing our field, the reliability and validity of popular research methods, and new methods or novel approaches. This article closes with a call to reflect on some f...

Thanks to the research endeavour in the past 30 years, the empirical research into translation process has gradually come to maturity, which has constituted the empirical paradigm of translation studies. Behind the Mind: Methods, Models and Results in Translation Process Research represents part of the current development of the empirical research into translation process. The book improves the data collection methods, deepens the existing research questions and breaks new ground of the field of empirical translation studies. This paper first gives a summary of the 10 papers collected and then makes a general comment on their academic contributions and shortcomings.

"This introductory chapter outlines the prominent role of  expertise research in the development of Translation Studies and discusses the nature of a situated translation and interpreting expertise (STIE) within cognitive, empirical approaches to translation and interpreting. STIE is envisioned as a multidimensional research construct where behaviors such as chuchotage, fansubbing, conference interpreting, literary translation, localization and the like may be described in terms of different demands in subsets of a fuzzy set of skills. Defining a specified set of representative translation and interpreting tasks seems to be a precondition to predicate existence of STIE, let alone degrees thereof.
A three-layer taxonomy is proposed, focusing on task models, component subtasks, and cognitive processes. Finally, a construct for STIE is sketched, with five overlapping and interacting dimensions, envisioned as scopes onto a single but complex mental experience. The five dimensions are knowledge, adaptive psychophysiological traits, regulatory skills, problem-solving skills, and the self-concept. The self-concept dimension is then used to illustrate how construct dimensions might be operationalized through several intermediary sub-constructs, in this case into the minimal sub-dimensions of self awareness, situation awareness, and self-efficacy."

"Most of the current training programmes in Translation and Interpreting in Spain include a course focused on culture and “civilization” contents related to each one of languages offered. Depending of the curriculum, this course may be basic, compulsory Spanish-wide (a local requisite), or optional. In general terms, the main goal of such courses is to familiarize students with the most relevant political, social and economic aspects from the main countries where a certain language is spoken. This paper assumes that a cognitive approach to the concept of “culture” is necessary for research purposes within empirical translatologies. However, its didactic articulation should also be redesigned, as evidenced by the courses on “Culture and Civilization of English Speaking Countries” mentioned in this paper. This paper presents some examples of the lack of a consensus on the understanding of the concept of culture in Translation Studies. Then, potentially useful contributions for an operational notion in cognitive translatology are discussed. The syllabuses used in many Translation and Interpreting Schools in Spain are then analysed under this perspective, by posing some questions about their application and advantages for students’ training. Finally, some suggestions are offered to (a) introduce a professional approach to the contents of these courses and (b) offer some ‘food for thought’ about the role of culture and its related concepts (culturemes, rich points) in Translation and Interpreting training programmes.

Keywords: Culture, Civilization, Cognitive Translatology"

In this paper, I attempt to contextualise computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools from a theoretical and a professional perspective and to model the usability of these tools. The theoretical contextualisation of CAT tools is based on Risku’s (2004) cognitive translational theory of Situated Translation, which claims that cognition is not isolated in the translator’s head but emerges in dynamic processes of interaction between the translator and his or her working environment. The potential influence exercised by CAT tools on the translator’s cognitive performance is illustrated by means of the Cologne Model of the Situated LSP  Translator, which is based on the theory of Situated Translation and which conceptualises CAT tools as important environmental artefacts in the translational ecosystem. The professional contextualisation takes the form of a survey of the role of CAT tools in the different phases of the computer-assisted translation process. In this context, I discuss how the various sub-tasks of these process phases can be supported by different CAT tools. Following this theoretical and professional contextualisation, I propose a general model of CAT tool usability as well as a more specific model of translation memory system (TMS) usability. These models are derived from ISO standard 9241 “Ergonomics of Human-System Interaction” and attempt to capture all relevant dimensions of CAT tool usability from a user-oriented perspective.

RESUMEN
Este artículo estudia las relaciones entre diversas concepciones de cultura y traducción. Para ello, analiza informáticamente el léxico de un corpus textual de 92 artículos de las revistas internacionales Meta, TTR y Perspectives que incluyen los lemas “traducción cultural” y/o “traducción intercultural”. Los resultados permiten trazar un mapa conceptual de las diversas aproximaciones al concepto de cultura en los Estudios de Traducción y sus interrelaciones, ofreciendo un breve recorrido por las definiciones implícitas y explícitas de traducción (inter)cultural, que se contrastan después con algunos principios de la traductología cognitiva.

Palabras clave: cultura, Estudios de Traducción, traducción cultural, traducción intercultural, traductología cognitiva

ABSTRACT
This paper sketches an empirical research on the relationships between different notions of culture and translation. The lexicon of 92 research papers published in the international journals Meta, TTR and Perspectives is analyzed. All texts include the labels “cultural translation” and/or “intercultural translation”. The analysis yields a conceptual map of the different approaches to culture in Translation Studies, and their interrelations. After a brief review of implicit and explicit understandings of (inter)cultural translation, they are contrasted with some principles of cognitive translatology.

Keywords: culture, Translation Studies, cultural translation, intercultural translation, cognitive translatology

Most human beings can be said to have attained a certain degree of bilingualism, and many of them are able to naturally translate simple language samples. From a cognitive perspective, translating seems an extension of monolingual linguistic and communicative abilities. Multiple perspectivization and paraphrasing, which are sustained by human, possibly innate capabilities such as abstracting and comparing, seem to be the basic features which allow people to translate. Fostered by the acquisition of literacy, bilinguals develop their metalinguistic awareness beyond usual levels, and in such a way that it has an impact on their cognitive development. This, in turn, improves their performance and results when translating or interpreting in tasks such as language brokering and other forms of paraprofessional translating. On the other hand, expert interpreting and translating tends to demand further cognitive adaptations to successfully perform professional tasks that natural translators have not developed. This perspective may shed light on some possibilities to improve the formal training of translators and interpreters.

The interlingual translation of figurative expressions and idioms is a particularly sensitive task, especially in literary texts where the figurativeness of the language is an inalienable part of the text as a literary piece. Since modern thinking on translation favours fidelity to the source text, the translator is required to maintain – rather than improve, reduce or otherwise alter – the figurative texture of the source text in the target text. In this paper, we investigate the felicity of J.P. Clark’s Izon-English translation in his The Ozidi Saga. We point out that felicitous as Clark’s translation is in general, there are noticeable cases of improvement, impoverishment and alteration, alongside full equivalence, in the figurative texture of the translation when viewed against the Izon text by a sensitive Izon- English bilingual. From this we argue that any form of alteration is a literary disservice to the source text, the source culture and the target audience. We propose tha...

Translation process research (TPR) efforts seem at times unconcerned with the theoretical foundations they need to interpret their results. A pervasive theoretical approach within TPR has been the mind-as-computer view. This approach has fostered both mechanistic and functional explanations of the translation process, including semantic notions of meaning, unrealistic constructs of the mental lexicon, and reified notions of equivalence. Some consequences of the approach are illustrated with discussions in the realm of translation quality assessment (automated and combined metrics, rubrics based on error categorization, and the impact of human variables and factors) and the monitor model hypothesis and its recent developments. Alternative approaches that draw from 4EA cognition are sketched that suggest that meaning is encyclopedic; that it is a process that cannot be measured; that the mental lexicon is only an abstraction of a part of (world-) knowledge; and that the tendency to choose default translations follows from the very structure of the brain/mind and the minimax principle.

The relationship between modern linguistics and translation theory has been described
as a contentious one (Fawcett 1997), with reciprocal links often disregarded
in favour of the sovereign status of each field. This entry aims to synthesise how
linguistic reflection, in the sense of theoretical reflection on language from antiquity
to the present, triggered conceptualisations of translation as an act of interpretative
transfer between two languages. It will start with ideas from general linguistics to
continue with the interdisciplinary approaches in textlinguistic, sociolinguistic,
psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic translation studies (TS).

La relación entre "cultura" y "traducción" es caldo de cultivo de abundantes reflexiones académicas (Trivedi 2007; Katan 2004, 2009; Conway, 2012). Existe una amplia variedad de definiciones y usos del término "cultura" y de sus derivados (competencia cultural, referencias culturales, etc.). Esta contribución aporta un panorama de los enfoques culturales en los Estudios de Traducción (Holmes, 1972; 1988) desde el denominado «giro cultural» (Bassnett y Lefevere, 1990; Dimitriu, 2006). Para ello, utiliza como base un corpus especializado multilingüe (cf. Pérez, 2002) que aspira a presentar —en líneas generales— los diversos caminos que parece haber emprendido la investigación en nuestro campo. El corpus se compone de 292 artículos publicados en Meta: journal des traducteurs entre 1990 y 2014. Todos incluyen el lema *cultur* en el título, el resumen o las palabras clave. El análisis adopta la metodología de los estudios de corpus y revisa los presupuestos teóricos que sustentan el material de estudio, en la línea metodológica de aportaciones anteriores en traductología cognitiva (Martín de León, 2003, 2005).
En este artículo se abordan las definiciones de CULTURA más comunes del corpus, por ejemplo: como formas de vida y pensamiento, prácticas y rituales de una comunidad (Wuilmart, 1990, Lotman, 1992; Wallravens, 1994; Ping, 1999; Cordonnier, 2002; Chen, 2002; Rojo, 2002), como conjunto de conocimientos (Gémar, 1990b; Cabrera y Hörmman, 1990; Kauffman, 1998; Gouadec, 2003), y las que destacan la relación de la cultura con el entorno (Wills, 1990; Gémar, 1990a; Hu, 1994) y con los aspectos ideológicos en los Estudios de Traducción (Bandia, 1995). De estas visiones se deriva un número relativamente significativo de instancias metafóricas que entienden la traducción como actividad entre culturas y que asignan al traductor o intérprete el papel de mediador intercultural (Bahadir, 2004, p.806; Bahumaid, 2010, p.570; De Pedro Ricoy, 2012, p.579). El estudio se complementa con una breve compilación de los autores y obras más citados: desde clásicos de la antropología cultural como Geertz (1973) hasta los primeros teóricos de la traducción (Nida y Taber, 1969, 1974; Steiner, 1975; Newmark, 1988 y Toury, 1995).

This article aims to give a cognitive linguistic account of the translational phenomena of explicitation and implicitation within the context of scientific and technical translation. After a brief discussion of possible conceptual issues involved in explicitation and implicitation research, it will be argued that a suitable linguistic framework – for example cognitive linguistics – is needed to model the various complex dimensions of the two phenomena. Following a short introduction to cognitive linguistics, explicitation and implicitation will be positioned within two influential models of “linguistic construal operations” developed within this framework. Then, a link will be established between the concept of linguistic construal and Langacker’s cognitive semantic theory of domains, which provides a toolset for modelling the implicit knowledge structures underlying specific usage events in communication. To test the suitability of the proposed framework, the article concludes with a discussion of some authentic examples of potential explicitation and implicitation in cognitive linguistic terms.

Nowadays, translation is often conceived as an intercultural activity rather than just an interlinguistic operation. This approach is coherent with the “cultural turn” that Translation Studies adopted in the 1980’s and the 1990’s. The seemingly general consensus actually comprises different conceptions of CULTURE: many of them classify culture in different facets (idioculture, diaculture, paraculture, among others) and degrees (cultural literacy) or explain it in comparative or dialectical terms (for example, the notion of cultureme, the dichotomy between domestic and foreigning translation, among others). Most of cultural approaches are based on social sciences, such as cultural anthropology, psychology, philosophy and the sociology of language. This paper analyzes the different notions of culture in a corpus of all the articles published in the last two years in four Spanish Translation & Interpreting journals: Quaderns (Revista de Traducció), 1611. Revista de Historia de la Traducción (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona), Transfer: revista electrónica sobre traducción e interculturalidad (Universitat de Barcelona) and TRANS (Universidad de Málaga). The study applies corpus analysis techniques in order to draft a general depiction of the notion and the role of culture in our discipline. It further seeks to draw relevant conclusions to view culture and its dependent concepts (cultural references, possible conceptual metaphors) with new eyes. This new perspective should help set the ground of a non-reductionist definition of culture to fit in the framework of Cognitive Translatology.

Keywords: Culture, Translation Studies, Cognitive Translatology

In recent years, Post-Editing (PE) has been increasingly gaining ground, especially following the advent of neural machine translation (NMT) models. However, translators still approach PE with caution and skepticism and question its real benefits. This study investigates the perception of both experienced and novice translators vis-à-vis PE, it compares the technical, temporal and cognitive effort expended by experienced translators during the full PE of NMT output with the effort expended by novice translators, focusing on the English-Greek language pair and explores potential differences in the quality of the post-edited texts. The findings reveal a more negative stance of the experienced translators as opposed to novice translators vis-à-vis Machine Translation (MT) and a more pragmatic approach vis-à-vis PE. However, the novice translators' more positive attitude does not seem to positively affect the temporal and cognitive effort that they expend. Finally, experienced translators have a tendency to overcorrect the NMT output, thus carrying out more redundant edits.

Several indicators seem to suggest that, through nearly six decades of development, Cognitive Translation Studies (CTS) may be taking shape as an autonomous field of study. The main challenges ahead seem to be building sounder theoretical models and carrying out more rigorous methodological scrutiny. These two strands converge as central themes in the 11 contributions to this special issue of LANS-TTS. To provide a context for theoretical modelling and to frame critical discussions of the methods included in this volume, we first trace the present landscape of CTS and how it evolved so as to test Holmes’ criteria for disciplines: founding new channels of communication and sharing a “disciplinary utopia”. The contributions are arranged into four thematic categories as applied to CTS, namely, scientometrics, framing or reframing our field, the reliability and validity of popular research methods, and new methods or novel approaches. This article closes with a call to reflect on some fundamental issues on the next steps of humankind regarding communication, with ever-growing societal demands and expectations that call for refreshing our notions of translation in the context of increasingly diversified forms of multilectal mediated communication.

This paper reports on potential points of contact between scientific and technical translation (STT) and cognitive linguistics (CL) and attempts to answer the question to what extent cognitive linguistics may be usefully applied to the study of STT. To do so, the paper surveys various theoretical components of the cognitive linguistic framework and illustrates how these components can be applied in modelling different contextual and textual aspects of scientific and technical translation. From a contextual perspective, special consideration is given to the concept of common ground and the field of cognitive semantics, which can be used to model shared knowledge and implicit knowledge in the knowledge-intense field of STT. From a textual perspective, the emphasis will be on the cognitive linguistic notion of linguistic construal, which can be used to model relevant linguistic aspects of STT from a cognitively plausible point of view. Several prototypical examples from the Cologne Specialized Translation Corpus (CSTC) will be discussed in cognitive linguistic terms in order to demonstrate the explanatory power of this framework in the context of translation studies.

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present the results of a study on the affective aspects of translator profession. Their description revolves around concepts developed within the field of psychology: self-efficacy, attributions and motivations. The results obtained reveal links between attitudes and certain skill patterns. Namely, high self-efficacy and a favourable attribution style correlate with high level management and CAT skills. Also, criteria applied for self-evaluation prove meaningful. Translators with high self-efficacy evaluate themselves against money and prestige criteria, while professionals with deficient self-efficacy are mostly self-referenced. This proves the importance of the social components in the translation profession.

My PhD research dissertation is part of the project which aims at constructing a systematic and empirically justified description of translation at the sentence level, following the four conceptual schematic systems elaborated by Talmy (2000/2001): the ‘Configurational Structure System’, the ‘Attentional System’, the ‘Perspective System’ and the ‘Force-Dynamics System’. The results of the existing research include evidence of the dissociation of linguistic and cognitive retention in translation for the ‘Attentional System’ (in terms of the Figure–Ground alignment) and the ‘Force-Dynamics System’. Based on these findings, the so-called Cognitive Retention Hypothesis has been put forward: “When describing translation from a source text to a target text, it is possible to distinguish linguistic and cognitive levels, and it is the cognitive level that is primarily retained in translation” (Mäkisalo and Lehtinen; 2014, 2017 and 2018).

In my conference presentation, I sum up the results of my empirical work carried out until now on the retention of Force-Dynamics event structures in translation, as well as on the evidence found on dissociating linguistic and cognitive description in translation, with reference to the English–Polish and Polish–English translation pairs. The study follows the suggested hypothesis in which the linguistic and cognitive information retention level is identified. The objective is to explore the extent to which information is retained in translation at both these levels, arguing that the multilingual approach to the Force-Dynamics theorisation provides a broader perspective to describe aspects of language and cognition than most cognitive theories.

The stated issues are presented based on small-scale, self-compiled corpora of phrases containing Force-Dynamics patterns from fragments of literary texts, comprising English and Polish materials. The rationale behind using literature as the material is to focus on translations theoretically undergoing very few changes, with a tendency to be very faithful, yet still very creative and, at times, surprising in translation solutions. The study adopts a multimethod approach in which the stated hypothesis is preliminarily validated with the use of quantitative data obtained, whereas the qualitative part of the study is to analyse how Force Dynamics is expressed if retained or modified in the translation process, as well as if completely abandoned.

In order to grasp complex wholes, like the solar system, scientists formulate simplified idealizations or models* for them. Scientific models represent such complex wholes to different degrees, but they will only work if (we believe that) there is some correspondence with their counterparts in the world. Such correspondence need not be based on physical or structural resemblance. Scientists may strip away everything they do not deem essential for their interests, or even introduce deliberate distortions they can control and correct later on. Models only need to fit empirical data. A scientific model entails a particular view on reality, a set of assumptions, tentative constructs and (often implicitly restricted) goals. Many systems, like the human cognitive system, can be modelled in different ways, often for different purposes. We may also use metaphors and analogies as models or as shorthand for other models, like "atoms look like solar systems" or "the human mind is a computer". When several models exist for one and the same object of study, they may become integrated or compete, transitorily or until one supersedes another. We may also adopt epistemic pluralism-not relativism-and use a model to study one part of the system, and another one for a different part or for the whole. Situated cognition is a model to study the workings of the mind/brain. It is considered to be an alternative to the mind-as-computer, information-processing model of cognition, which was prevalent in computing, linguistics, psychology and the philosophy of mind before the 21 st century and is still advocated by some. These models-information-processing and situated cognition-sustain what seem to be mutually exclusive principles, tenets and views on the nature and workings of perception, memory, thought, language, understanding, the very architecture and components of our cognitive system (such as the mental lexicon) and, crucially, its relationship with the world. These models of cognition are important because they form the basis of all cognitive approaches* to translation. The informationprocessing model informed most cognitive endeavors in Translation Studies. Situated approaches, such as Cognitive Translatology (Muñoz 2010), are now on the rise. Two notes of caution are called for. First, cognition may be situated to different degrees. Abstract thinking (e.g., considering time or society) maybe less situated than thinking while playing ping-pong. Non-situated cognition is possible, but also the exception-just in some forms of Artificial Intelligence, when you also think that thinking is what they do. Second, situated cognition is an umbrella term for a set of empirically supported rejoinders to the information-processing model that are linked by family resemblances. It covers theoretical positions describing cognition as embodied, embedded, extended, and enactive, and also dynamical, distributed, and affective. These positions share a view of cognition as emerging in situ from the interaction with the body and the environment. Rather than swallowing the autonomous, internal symbol-processing approach, situated cognition argues that neither physical nor sociocultural aspects can be factored out when studying mental processes.