Existensialism

Leonardo Ricci was a scholar of Giovanni Michelucci and a friend of Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre, with whom he shared the existentialist approach to worldly things. He was a painter fascinated by the primitivism he borrowed from Schiele and Picasso, and finally, of course, he was an exceptional architect. His investigation covers all scales, from houses to community villages, to representative buildings up to the invention of macrostructures for the so called Earth-city. In every work Ricci did not follow pre- established formal rules, his aim was to forecast the basic needs of man and thus outline his architectural realizations. Ricci defined this process as “logical”: a relentless desire to find links between natural matters and to define spaces as a result of free sequences of human acts. A process
always oriented towards a tight interaction between his architecture, the individual and the community.

People spend their lives day by day, guided by the same principles as their forefathers, and they frequently question their own existence in the universe and attempt to comprehend the world around them. People frequently question their own existence in relation to the rest of the universe. Philosophers try to solve topics that most people would never consider in their daily lives. Most philosophers use empiricism to try to figure out the truth of logical questions. Epistemology is a “branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge”. Philosophers employ reason to arrive at conclusions about the world's existence through rationalism. Rationalists use two methods: a priori and a posteriori. To identify the truth, a priori knowledge is information derived through reason (and prior to experience).

Resumo: Este artigo procura apresentar inicialmente o conceito de Absurdo, tal como expresso no pensamento de Albert Camus, para em seguida apontar sua relação com o Niilismo problematizado na filosofia de Nietzsche. Para estabelecer essa relação, a noção da "morte de Deus" é sugerida como ponto de articulação entre os dois conceitos. Procuramos apontar ainda uma outra aproximação entre os pensadores no que concerne ao "niilismo ativo" nietzschiano e o conceito de Revolta formulado por Camus. Palavras chave: Absurdo; Niilismo; Morte de Deus; Revolta. Abstract: This paper aims firstly to present the concept of Absurd, such as expressed on Camus's thinking, then point to its relationship with the Nihilism treated in the Nietzsche's philosophy. In order to establish that relationship, the notion of "death of God" is suggested as a point of articulation between those concepts. We aim also to show another link between those thinkers in concerning about Nietzsche's "active nihilism" and the concept of Revolt formulated by Camus. A produção intelectual de Albert Camus situa-se não só cronologicamente como também tematicamente junto à corrente filosófica conhecida como "existencialismo francês". Autor de obras que alcançaram amplo reconhecimento, tais como O estrangeiro, O mito de Sísifo e O Homem Revoltado, Camus apresenta numa linguagem lúcida e cortante a condição do homem perante a experiência do absurdo, inserindo esse tema no bojo da análise filosófica da existência. Em linhas gerais, podemos dizer que o existencialismo é uma corrente filosófica que surge numa época de crise: as duas guerras mundiais, os intensos conflitos políticos e sociais e as atrocidades cometidas em massa por governos tanto de direita quanto de esquerda representaram um duro golpe no otimismo romântico que alimentava a crença em grandes ideais, tais como "Razão" e "Humanidade", assim como puseram em xeque filosofias que almejavam um progresso na história do homem. É no seio desse clima tenso e conflituoso que o existencialismo, enquanto corrente literária e filosófica, traduzirá "a estrutura e a angústia do mundo moderno", para usar uma expressão de Lévinas, e é no mesmo contexto crítico que Camus reflete sobre o sofrimento injustificado que se dissemina na experiência humana, particularmente em uma época de barbáries institucionalizadas. Diante dessa crise, o existencialismo voltará seu olhar para o homem concreto e finito, para aquele ser "lançado" no mundo, que se depara constantemente com problemas e enfrenta atribulações que o dilaceram e o obrigam a escolher. Camus, em termos mais específicos, irá se debruçar sobre o "que ele considera como uma família de espíritos acometidos de angústia diante de um universo onde reinam a contradição e as 1 Mestrando em Filosofia pela UFPI. Ex-bolsista do PET-Filosofia da UFPI.

En la presente reseña crítica se abordará la novela corta El extranjero, que le otorgó un gran reconocimiento a su autor: Albert Camus, un novelista, ensayista y dramaturgo nacido en Argelia, Francia en el año 1913, lugar que le sirvió de inspiración para algunas de sus obras. Así mismo, para este autor el existencialismo tiene gran influencia, considerando responsabilidades individuales y visiones subjetivas sobre la manera en la cual el destino toma su rumbo, sin considerar nuestra opinión, haciéndolo totalmente ajeno a nuestros deseos.

Jean-Paul Sartre nasceu no dia 21 de Junho de 1905 e morreu no dia 15 de Abril de 1980, foi um filósofo, escritor e critico francês. No ano de 1964, Sartre recusou-se a receber o Prémio Nobel da Literatura, era reconhecido pela sua simplicidade e pela sua gentileza, que contradizia com a arrogância dos homens intelectuais franceses.
O Existencialismo é um movimento filosófico que normalmente nos faz remontar ao filósofo oitocentista dinamarquês Søren Kierkegaard. O nome em si foi introduzido por Jean-Paul Sartre, embora a expressão “filosofia da existência” tenha sido usada antes por Karl Jaspers, que pertencia à mesma tradição.
Jean-Paul Sartre definiu o termo “existencialismo” e usou o método fenomenológico para defender a sua tese central de que os seres humanos são essencialmente livres. Sartre argumenta que a consciência é tal (como “ser para si”) que tem sempre a liberdade de escolher (embora não tenha a liberdade de não escolher) e de “negar” as características dadas do mundo.
Segundo o existencialismo de Sartre, o mundo é habitado de "Em si". Podemos entender um Em si como qualquer objeto existente no mundo e que não é nada além daquilo que é.
A consciência humana é um tipo diferente de ser, por possuir conhecimento a seu próprio respeito e a respeito do mundo, é chamada de para si. É o Para si que faz as ligações temporais e funcionais entre os seres Em si, e ao fazer isso, edifica um sentido para o mundo em que vive. O Para si não tem uma essência definida, não é resultado de uma ideia pré-existente. O existencialismo de Sartre desacredita a existência de um criador que tenha prefixado a essência e os fins de cada pessoa. É preciso que o Para si seja, e durante essa existência ele descreve, a cada momento o que é a sua essência. Cada pessoa só tem como essência imutável, aquilo que já viveu.

The Philosophy of Existence: Concept of anguish existential in Kierkegaard and Heidegger.

Resumo: Por meio da análise filosófica o artigo retrata o conceito de existencialismo e as suas influencias no mundo moderno e contemporâneo.  A abordagem retrata a filosofia dos conceitos em perspectiva comparativa sobre o existencialismo na filosofia de Kierkegaard e Heidegger. Nessa perspectiva discute-se os idealismos, as angustias e as consciências transcendentais no pensamento dos sujeitos
Palavra-Chaves: Existencialismo, Kierkegaard, Heidegger

Abstract:Through philosophical analysis the article portrays the concept of existentialism and its influences in the modern and contemporary world. The approach portrays the philosophy of concepts in a comparative perspective on existentialism in the philosophy of Kierkegaard and Heidegger. From this perspective, idealisms, anxieties and transcendental consciences are discussed in the subjects' thinking
Keywords: Existentialism, Kierkegaard, Heidegger

Recebido em: 10/11/2019  – Aceito em 31/12/2019

Since the publication of her first book in 1944, critics felt compelled to link Clarice Lispector to the tradition of "experimental" or avant-garde novel in Brazil, confronting her production with emblematic works by Oswald and Mário de Andrade (and later on, Guimarães Rosa). We will rescue critically this trajectory, taking as a watershed some ideas expressed by Haroldo de Campos and the work of Olga de Sá, which was oriented by him in the late seventies. We will point out, on the other hand, in two earlier more celebrated approaches to Clarice's work, those of Antônio Cândido and Benedito Nunes, significant mistakes which are due to deficiencies in their analytic framework. These deficiencies persist (although in the opposite direction) in other more contemporary approaches, such as that of Evando Nascimento. We recognize the legitimacy of attempts such as to recover Clarice's Jewish roots, especially when properly contextualized. Otherwise, one overlooks the writer's real significance in relation to our own literature and the most innovative currents in Western literature, which have gained strength specially since the end of the 19th century: from Sterne and Henri James to Virginia Woolf and Joyce, from Nerval to Marcel Proust and Beckett.

This article speaks on the philosophy of one of the greatest existentialists of 20th century, Jean Paul Sartre. His philosophy of being, phenomenological ontology, dialectics and ethics are discussed here. His ideas on authenticity, bad faith, human nature, freedom, God are also described.

Aristotle’s treatment of the Lazy Argument in Chapter 9 of De Interpretatione has received much attention from philosophers for being a solution to an intellectual problem about fatalism and free will. However, little scholarly work has been done on the possibility that reflecting on and accepting the Lazy Argument could be a moral failure according to Aristotle’s ethics. Drawing on the work of Richard Moran and Jonathan Cohen, in this paper I argue that, on Aristotle’s view, if an agent thoughtfully reflects on and accepts the Lazy Argument, they are acting viciously. This is because thoughtfully reflecting on and accepting the Lazy Argument turns on engaging in a type of self-reflection that is deceptive. I argue that such an action is vicious because it misses hitting the mean of truthfulness in self-reflection. In response to this argument, I consider an objection, and show that, while not all cases of acceptance are moral failures, cases of acceptance like these can never be virtuous.

Table of contents + Introduction.
London/New York/Calcutta: Seagull Books, 2022. ----------  The first and exhaustive biography of twentieth-century leftist philosopher André Gorz.

Recognized as one of the most lucid and innovative critics of contemporary capitalism, André Gorz (1923–2007) was known for asking fundamental questions regarding the meaning of life and work. This first biography of a unique figure operating at the confluence of literature, philosophy, and journalism revisits half a century of intellectual and political life.

Born Gerhart Hirsch in Vienna, he studied in Switzerland before opting to live and work in France. A self-taught existentialist thinker, he was constantly revising his view of the world, unafraid to break new theoretical ground in doing so. Influenced by Marx, Husserl, Sartre, and Illich, he had very close affinities with the new thinking on the Left that was coming out of Italy in the 1960s and 70s. He was also one of the first thinkers to shape political ecology and to advocate de-growth. The intellectual on the editorial board of Sartre’s journal Les Temps Modernes, Gorz was also a mainstream journalist. He wrote in L’Express under the sobriquet Michel Bosquet before joining others in the creation of Le Nouvel Observateur.

Through Gorz’s life journey, we meet not only Sartre and de Beauvoir, but also Herbert Marcuse, Fidel Castro, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Ivan Illich, Félix Guattari, Antonio Negri, and many others. Beyond his poignant autobiographical narratives, The Traitor and Letter to D, which attest to his deep humanity, Gorz remains a precious guide for all who believe that another world is still possible.

«وجودگرایی» یا «اگزیستانسیالیسم» عنوانی بود که سارتر برای فلسفۀ خودش برگزید، اما این عنوانی بود که هیچ‌کس از کسانی که فلسفه‌شان شباهتی با مضامین «وجودی» دارد راضی به پذیرفتن آن نشد. مفهوم «وجود» و «وجودی» به معنای جدید را سورن کی‌یرکگور، متفکّر دینی دانمارکی، در نیمۀ اول قرن نوزدهم متداول کرد و هایدگر شاهکار خود «هستی و زمان» را در دهۀ سوم آعاز قرن بیستم به تحلیل پدیدارشناختی و وجودی موجودی اختصاص داد که او را با نامی هستی‌شناختی «دازاین» یا «هستی‌گشا» می‌نامید. هایدگر پیشگام در ارائۀ «هستی‌شناسی وجودی» به قصد رسیدن به «هستی» بود. با این همه، آن که تا سه دهه بعد از جنگ جهانی دوم میداندار کلّ عرصۀ «فلسفۀ وجودی» با نام «وجودگرایی» بود کسی جز ژان‌پل سارتر نبود و همین عنوان بود که بر جای «فلسفۀ وجودی» و دیگر عنوان‌های مشابه همچون «فلسفۀ وجود» و «فلسفۀ هستی» نشست.

جان مک‌کواری، خداشناس و فیلسوف برجستۀ اسکاتلندی، در این کتاب می‌کوشد با بحثی موضوعی از مهم‌ترین مضامینی که «وجودگرایی» را شکل می‌دهند، از کی‌یرکگور تا نیچه و داستایفسکی و هایدگر و سارتر و کامو و مرلوپونتی، و حتی سقراط و آگوستین، و نیز اسطوره و دین و عرفان گنوسی، نشان دهد که ریشه‌های اندیشۀ «وجودی» را تا کجا می‌توان در تاریخ بشر پی گرفت و مضامینی مانند «دلشوره» و «مرگ» و «خود» و «زندگی اصیل» چگونه در این فلسفه‌ها بحث شده‌اند. اما، بحث او به همین جا پایان نمی‌یابد، او پس از پی گرفتن تأثیرات وجودگرایی در اخلاق و هنر و روان‌شناسی و خداشناسی و تعلیم و تربیت در قرن بیستم به ارزیابی انتقادی این فلسفه و نتایج خوب و بد، و خواسته یا ناخواستۀ، آن نیز می‌پردازد.

Il pensiero antico ha riflettuto continuamente sull'essenza tragica della natura umana, in perenne sforzo di costruire un cosmo ordinato all'interno della ciclica legge naturale. Riprendendo considerazioni di altri eminenti studiosi, questo scritto tenta di mostrare la profondità di questa riflessione facendo interagire tre autori come Omero, Sofocle e Tucidide.

Homo sapiens is a post-truth species, whose power depends on creating myths that have served to unite human collectivities. We live in an era of post-truth where the art of lie shakes every truth; that lies and fictions are all around us. True lies win and a climate of mistrust to everything has become the air today; conspiracy theories thrive, and sensationalism wins more than facts. Post-truth is defined as denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion that appeals to emotion and personal belief. The paper discusses the idea of post-truth claiming 'nothing is true and everything is possible' that describes the weariness of today. Rationality is threatened there by a crash in the value of truth. In politics honesty and accuracy are no longer assigned priority. Declining value of truth, today, loses its currency. Truth matters less or even not at all. Social media generates this sensationalism at the neglect of facts and truth in the post-truth era. The language game of social media, the politics of truth, wins the hollowness of humans in the present era; thus there arises a crisis in values in all levels of Homo sapiens .

Addressed to both religious and secular audiences (p. 13), This Life offers a challenge to those who believe in eternal life and a proposal to those who continue to ask whether such exists after death. The author, Martin Hägglund, is convinced that although spiritual freedom is the goal of each life, but this must not be understood in the religious sense that we live a life in the here and now in preparation for a world (far more real) to come. Instead, we are to live with conviction and commitment to do something responsible as we spend our time together in this world. Death, human finitude, reminds us of our vulnerabilities, but at the same time it calls us to hold on to faith that something more can be done other than spending our time in fear.

بر اساس دیدگاه وجودی، ما انسان ها از کسانی که دنیا را با آن ها سهیم هستیم، جدا نمی باشیم. تربیت عقاید شخصی ما تا حد زیادی از والدین ما سرچشمه گرفته اند. بنابراین، ما باید از کسانیکه در طی سالیان سال بر طرز فکرمان تأثیر گذاشته اند قدردانی فراوانی به عمل آوریم. کتاب حاضر مجموعه ای از آثار مربوط به روابط وجودی می باشد. این کتاب نتیجه کار گروهی با چندین نویسنده می باشد، کسانیکه به طور محسوس و مستقیم الهام بخش ما در گردآوری مجموعه حاضر بوده اند. ما (امی ون دورزن و یاکوو) به طور مشترک در مورد تألیف این کتاب برنیامدیم زیرا به دنبال مجموعه ای با خصوصیات متفاوت بودیم. از همین رو بر آن شدیم این کار را با مشارکت چندین مولف و در نظر گرفتن تجارب و دیدگاه های متفاوت انجام دهیم. مشارکت در این کار فرآیندی آزاد بوده و در مقایسه با کار انفرادی، نتیجه بدست آمده راضی کننده تر بوده است. ما از درمانگران وجودی مجربی که فصول این کتاب را نوشته اند بسیار سپاسگزار هستیم، به خصوص به خاطر تعهدشان در ارائه زمینه های جدید کار در درمان وجودی و همچنین به خاطر صبر و حوصله فراوانی که از همان ابتدای کار که ایده های گرد آوری این کتاب پرورش داده می شد تا مرحله چاپ از خود نشان دادند. به هرحال، افتخار واقعی این کتاب به گذشتگان تعلق دارد: از سقراط گرفته تا بودا، از ارسطو تا یاسپر، از کی یرکگارد تا سارتر و از کامو گرفته تا نیچه. اینان افراد بزرگی هستند که ما بر گفتار خردمندانه آن ها تکیه کرده ایم و دِینی بی حد و حصر به آن ها داریم. امیدواریم در این کتاب مطالب گذشتگان به نحو مطلوب ارائه شده باشند و در همین حال برای آیندگان نیز مطالب ارزشمندی به جا گذاشته باشیم.

Complete lecture for this paper - https://youtu.be/iBjHaBHO_qU

In India during the Post-Independence Era; a period of colossal chaos, Sahir struggled to align his stance and literary point of view. Interestingly, rather than going to extremes, Sahir chose the middle path. He kept himself aloof from becoming a complete advocate of revolution or love and chose to express the anguish of both; the personal and the political.

[Franklin & Marshall College, Spring 2022] — Does life have any inherent meaning, and what should we do if the answer is “no”? This was a major question at the center of the 20th century philosophical movement known as Existentialism. Although one might expect the existentialist philosopher’s response to this question to display the “despair” or “dread” commonly associated with this movement, many existentialists considered the rejection of traditional theories about the sources of meaningfulness to be positive and liberating, freeing people to live a more authentic life.

In this course, we will explore the philosophical concept of “authenticity” and its role in living a meaningful life. We will read and discuss canonical philosophical texts on this topic, drawn mostly but not only from the existentialist tradition, as well as material from a variety of other disciplines such as psychology, literature, and religion.

ריבונות הטוב, שראה אור ב-1970, הוא מעט המחזיק את המרובה: חיבור דק גזרה, המציג את משנתה של מרדוק באופן תמציתי באמצעות שלושה מאמרים נפרדים שקובצו יחדיו. הספר נחשב לאחד הטקסטים המקוריים שהעמידה המחשבה המוסרית במחצית השנייה של המאה העשרים, ונדמה כי איכויותיו רק הולכות ומתבהרות בחלוף השנים. תרומתו הגדולה היא בהשבת האידיאה של "הטוב" לסדר היום האתי, כנגד נטייתה של הפילוסופיה המודרנית להתעלם ממושג זה או להמעיט מחשיבותו לדיון על מהות המוסריות. אף שהנוף האינטלקטואלי עבר שינויים משמעותיים מאז פרסום הספר, השאלות שמעלה ריבונות הטוב והתשובות שהוא מציע לא איבדו מאומה מחריפותן.

הספר תורגם בידי ד"ר יואב אשכנזי, שגם הקדים לו מבוא רחב יריעה, הסוקר את פועלה של מרדוק ואת השקפותיה.

This article deals with the unique position of Rabbi Zadoq Ha-Kohen of Lublin on the question of the contradiction between the absolute Divine will and foreknowledge ("Yediah") and the free and contingent choice of man – a position which is the central theme of his doctrine in form and content, directly and indirectly. Its main argument is that, contrary to other positions in philosophy, religious thoughts and Jewish thought – which hold one of the two poles and annul the other, create a thawing and weakening synthesis between them, or claim their full strength but in a bipolarity in which they have no mutual influence – R. Zadoq presents a paradox in which the two poles exist together in their full strength and even in mutual influence, which creates difficult yet fertile tension. This position is exemplified in R. Zadokq's conception of man's existential condition: although R. Zadoq continues in many ways the existential fatalism of his Rabbi, Mordechai Yosef Liner of Izbica – whereby the spiritual inquiry of one's desires may reveal the Divine will inherent in it, and this is his "affixed root of the soul" – R. Zadoq also goes beyond this notion and argues for the existence of a "hidden root", which is divine but determined by man's free choice.

See also here:
https://traditiononline.org/the-hidden-root-the-existential-paradox-of-rabbi-tzadok/

การวิจัยเรื่อง “แนวคิดอัตวิสัยของซอเรน อับบี เคียร์เคกอร์ด” มีวัตถุประสงค์เพื่อศึกษาวิเคราะห์แนวคิดเรื่องอัตวิสัยของเคียร์เคกอร์ดในเชิงปรัชญา โดยเคียร์เคกอร์ดมองว่ามนุษย์แต่ละคนที่ดำรงอยู่ในโลกล้วนมีเรื่องราวในชีวิตที่มีความหมายแต่กิจกรรมทางสังคมและกลุ่มคนขนาดใหญ่ได้กลืนกินชีวิตของปัจเจกชนจนทำให้ปัจเจกชนละเลยภาระหน้าที่ของตนเองในการค้นหาความหมายชีวิตอันเป็นสิ่งที่ดำรงอยู่ภายในชีวิตของแต่ละคน เคียร์เคกอร์ดชวนให้มนุษย์ทุกคนค้นหาความหมายของชีวิตในการดำรงอยู่ด้วยวิธีการแห่งการไตร่ตรอง การศรัทธา การตัดสินใจ และการรับผิดชอบของตนเอง แต่อย่างไรก็ตามมนุษย์ที่ดำรงอยู่ในสภาพอันจำกัดก็ไม่สามารถค้นหาความหมายและตัวตนที่แท้จริงได้นอกเสียจากจะต้องพึ่งพาอาศัยในบางสิ่ง ซึ่งสำหรับเคียร์เคกอร์ดสิ่งนั้นก็คือ พระผู้เป็นเจ้า

This writing is my MA dissertation, in all its flawed glory. It did score well, however. Anyway, I believe the title does quite a good job of explaining the theme of the writing. So, please enjoy the journey!

**Please be aware... there may be formatting errors in the preview. It's easier to download as a PDF to have the original formatting.**

Le rapport de Sartre à l'oppression féminine peut être analysé en observant le moyen par lequel, dans ses oeuvres littéraires, le philosophe reproduit des stéréo-types misogynes ou, comme le dit Simone de Beauvoir, sédimente des traces de phallocratie. Dans ce sens, on peut dire qu'il y a une nette dissymétrie entre personnages masculins et personnages féminins dans la fiction et le théâtre de Sartre. Tandis que les premiers sont principalement définis par leur action et les choix que ces actions expriment, au contraire les seconds ont une marge de manoeuvre fort limi-tée. L'oeuvre littéraire sartrienne manque complètement d'héroïnes et, même si Sartre a toujours refusé toutes formes d'essentialisme, les femmes finissent cons-tamment par se conformer à des stéréotypes essentialistes. A la différence des personnages masculins, qui sont tenacement projetés vers la transcendance, elles sont toujours représentées comme des êtres sans action, éthérées, presque sans corps, comme la jeune poitrinaire rencontrée par le professeur Gaillard dans L'ange du morbide. Si le réel est le lieu de l'action morale, de l'engagement, les femmes, au contraire, finissent par représenter la tentation de l'imaginaire, de l'intériorité, de la passivité. Privées de chaque attitude à la transcendance, elles sont perçues comme des obstacles à l'action ou comme des instruments utiles au dynamisme masculin. La défense du philosophe, selon laquelle le romancier n'a pas de responsabilités pour les tòpoi contenues dans ses oeuvres, car il a simple-ment représenté la femme sociale telle qu'elle est dans la société, n'est que par-tiellement convaincante. De fait, la représentation des femmes est gouvernée par un seul schéma essentialiste, celui de l'opposition entre physis et antiphysis. La réalité qui veut que leurs corps soient annexés, par essence, à la nature, à travers la mise en évidence des aspects les plus triviaux de leur matérialité, comme les fesses adipeuses et tombantes et la chaire molle est, dans ce sens-là, une autre caractéristique de l'oeuvre sartrienne. 1 Il semble donc être valable pour Sartre ce qu'il reprochait à l'esthétique du Tintoretto: la réduction de la femme à de pures oripeaux de l'oeuvre d'art, à un prétexte pour la narration, à un objet de l'histoire, où la belle devient instrument pour la sanctification de l'acte masculin, comme dans le San Giorgio uccide il drago ou la Strage degli innocenti. Toutefois ce n'est pas sur ces points que nous nous arrêterons. Notre tentative, au contraire, sera plutôt de chercher à tracer les contours de la présence ou, plu-tôt, de l'absence d'une théorie sartrienne de l'oppression féminine, qui constitue le deuxième moyen pour approcher l'oeuvre de Sartre d'un point de vue du genre. Ainsi, on peut d'abord se référer à l'élaboration de sa philosophie politique et, en particulier, au thème de la liberté, véritable fondement de sa pensée.

Absurdism is a movement of thought that was put forward by Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and that was defined and explained thoroughly by French philosopher Albert Camus. The Absurd refers to the conflict between human tendency to seek value or meaning in life and human incapability of finding such value or meaning. The major concern of this paper is revealing the absurdist elements embedded in the novel The Outsider. The side goals are examining the context that formed the world of ideas of the author, and exposing the differences between the movements of Nihilism, Existentialism and Absurdism.

במאי טלוויזיה מפורסם מחבל שוב ושוב בסיכויו לאהוב ולהית מאושר, מחריב את חייהם של הקרובים אליו, ומוביל את בנה המתבגר של אהבת נעוריו אל מותו בטביעה. מפקח מס ויוצר כושל מפתה את עצמו להתאהב באשתו הבוגדת ובבתו בת השמונה-עשרה של חברו, הסופר המפורסם, מוביל את חייו אל עברי פי פחת, אל תא הכלא ואל ההודעה ברצח של ביצע. תמות אלה ודומות טורדות את הסופרת והפילוסופית אייריס מרדוק, מהדהדות ברומנים הרבים מפרי עטה ובכתיבתה הפילוסופית. ספר זה מורדש להצגת יצירתה של מרדוק, המתמקדת בשאלת היחס האנושי לאחרים ולעולם. באמצעות המסורת - שראשיתה בהגותם של קאנט ושל הגל, ושורשיה ברומנטיקה ובהשכלה - חותר ספר זה להציג את עבודתה במבט רחב וממוקד מטרה: לאפשר לקורא לראות בבהירות רבה את האופנים שבהם הוא עלול להיהפך לקריקטורה אנוכית, במקום לאישיות מוסרית, מקורית ויוצרת. הספר גם מציע אפשרות לקורא לחרוג ולהשתחרר ממצב זה באמצעות מאמץ להתבונן, לדמיין ולשנות את מערכת דימויו הפנימיים לאורו של הטוב. מאמץ זה פירושו להיות אנושי.

A keen athlete in his late 40s, philosophy professor Kevin Aho hadn’t given much thought to his own mortality, until he suffered a sudden heart attack that left him fighting for his life. Confronted with death for the first time, he realized that the things he thought gave his life meaning, such as his independence or his ability to plan his own future, were in tatters.
Aho turned to those thinkers who have reflected deeply on the meaning of life and the anxiety of living when every heartbeat might be your last: the existentialists. Armed with the insights of figures such as Kierkegaard, Heidegger, Nietzsche, and de Beauvoir, he found new meaning and comfort in a view of life that strives for authenticity and accepts ageing and death as part of what makes life worthwhile. Existentialism asks us to face the frailty of our existence and to live with a sense of urgency and gratitude towards its manifold beauties. It is only then that we can be released from patterns of self-deception and begin to appreciate what truly matters in our fleeting, precious lives.

An ‘affective turn’ has come about in philosophy of mind debates and the notion of empathy is increasingly influential. This could usefully extend into psychological research, particularly in counselling and psychotherapy. Edith Stein’s account of empathy bridges gaps between individual psychological experience, embodied interpersonal emotionality, and our collective social moral order. Her philosophy provides ethical and practical guidance for researchers who seek to understand the meaning of what their participants experience in the flow of intersubjectivity and situated living. Researchers can thereby avoid positioning them as ‘different,’ ‘deviant,’ or ‘dysfunctional.’  Methodologies are recommended, based on Stein’s account.

La tesi qui presentata tenta di dimostrare la stretta correlazione che intercorre tra il pensiero nietzschiano e la produzione artistico-filosofica di Albert Camus sia dal punto di vista contenutistico che dal punto di vista metodologico. Tale tesi sarà dimostrata fornendo una prospettiva a tutto tondo del pensiero camusiano: a partire dall’opera "Il rovescio e il diritto", in cui l’autore pone le basi della sua visione ontologica del mondo, si passa a "Il mito di Sisifo", in cui si delineano più chiaramente gli aspetti più elaborati della filosofia dell’autore, per poi infine analizzare le tre opere in cui emergono le tematiche care a quello che verrà definito il “primo Camus”. Dopodiché si passerà in analisi la seconda fase dello scrittore, soffermandosi sul romanzo "La peste", per poi concentrarsi sul saggio "L’uomo in rivolta", l’ultima opera saggistica di Camus. Il filosofo francese è un pensatore dell’esistenza, egli non si chiede per quale ragione si esista, ma piuttosto come si debba esistere e quindi come comportarsi. Il suo primo intento è dunque quello di comprendere per quale ragione si debba vivere e se sia lecito o no il suicidio. "Il mito di Sisifo" nasce con l’intento di rispondere a tale interrogativo, stabilendo fin da principio che il reale in cui siamo condannati a vivere è Assurdo. Assurdo secondo Camus non è il mondo in sé, anzi, l’Assurdo nasce in virtù del rapporto uomo-mondo, in quanto l’essere umano da un lato è caratterizzato da un insaziabile appetito di eternità e di tutto ciò che è assoluto e illimitato, dall’altro però - suo malgrado- è costretto in un corpo misero e fallibile, soggetto al tempo e alla morte. In virtù di tale riconoscimento, rendendosi conto che il mondo è Assurdo poiché in esso la morte trova il proprio regno cancellando ogni senso e quindi ogni scopo nella caducità del reale, l’essere umano non ha che una scelta da compiere: resistere. Il mondo è Assurdo e il nostro rapporto con esso lo va a costituire, noi non possiamo rinunciare ad esso perché solo in virtù del fatto che si è in rapporto con il reale l’Assurdo in sé esiste; ecco che vivere dunque appare l’unica scelta possibile poiché decidere di togliersi la vita significherebbe cancellare uno dei termini costituenti l’Assurdo stesso. Quest’ultimo è un evidenza a cui si giunge attraverso la ragione, quella stessa ragione che ci condanna rendendoci stranieri rispetto a tutta la creazione, ma che allo stesso tempo ci libera ponendoci di fronte alla verità e cancellando ogni illusione; in quel mondo di macerie ecco ergersi l’uomo consapevole della propria condanna, il reale diventa il suo regno e acquisisce consapevolezza di come debba comportarsi. La morale stabilita da Camus nel "Il mito di Sisifo" è quantitativa, tutta calata nell’immanenza e quindi volontariamente contraria a ogni forma di speranza o malinconia. Il sostanziale problema con cui però venne a scontrarsi a questo punto è quello dell’omicidio. Che senso ha sconfessare il suicidio quando la morte può essere procurata ad altri? Infatti se la morale non ha nessun presupposto qualitativo, se professa solo la vita consacrata ad un ideale dionisiaco, tutta gettata nei piaceri del qui ed ora, tutto diventa lecito. In un mondo senza scopo i peggiori mali diventano ora possibili di fronte agli occhi inermi di un osservatore estraneo. "La peste" è il romanzo in cui tale problema inizia ad emergere, che verrà poi preso in causa seriamente solo ne "L’uomo in rivolta".
Camus in quest’opera spiegherà come in realtà, nel momento in cui l’essere umano prende coscienza dell’Assurdo ed insorge contro la morte, la rivolta non è esclusiva e individuale: può essere letta come unicamente propria dell’individuo insorto, ma in verità indica una difesa per qualcosa di comune a tutti gli esseri umani. Nel momento in cui l’insorto si erge contro le assurdità cui è condannato si scopre paladino di qualcosa di comune a tutti, poiché ogni essere umano è condannato esattamente come lui, da lì infatti il motto: “Mi rivolto dunque siamo”. Camus è un pensatore del XX secolo e ne reincarna le angosce più profonde: conosce uno dei volti peggiori della morte e il suo pensiero non nasce che dal tentativo di porvi rimedio senza chiamare in causa un Dio o divinizzando alcunché. Egli è nietzchiano nel momento in cui, esattamente come il suo maestro, si scontra con una società in cui Dio è già morto da tempo e il cui fantasma ha lasciato spazio al nichilismo e a quel sentimento di orfanità cui oggi cerchiamo ancora di dar risposta. Egli procede esattamente come Nietzsche, ma senza incappare nello stesso errore, il suo infatti è un pensiero solare, mediterraneo, che tenta di porre l’uomo di fronte a uno specchio per ricordargli chi egli davvero sia.

כיצד יכול בעל "לראות" באופן מיידי את מצבה הפנימי של אשתו האהובה ולהבין את רגשותיה ומחשבותיה, היכן שזר יחמיץ אותם תמיד? כיצד יכולה חירות הנתפסת כשחרור מכבלים לאיין את החירות האמתית האפשרית לבני אדם? כיצד יכול סוציופת אטום ומסוכן לזולת בכל זאת לראות ולהבין מפניהם של האחרים ומהתנהגותם את מה שנחוץ לו להישרדותו? מהו טבעה של החריגה העצמית אל האחרים והעולם, שדרכה אנו נעשים לבני אנוש ולאישיויות הייחודיות שביכולתנו להיות? שאלה כאלה ואחרות עומדות במרכזו של הספר, המבקש לסרטט להן תשובות באמצעות דיון מרתק ומעורר מחשבה על מקומן ומשמעותן של האהבה, החירות, הראייה והחריגה העצמית מאנוכיות ומגבולות הגוף.

این مقاله دیروز، دوشنبه ۱۷ خرداد ۱۴۰۰، در فصلنامهٔ «نگاه آفتاب»، شمارهٔ سوم، ص ۵۱-۳۸، بهار ۱۴۰۰، با عنوان «گریزِ تنهایی و گریز از تنهایی» (این عنوان از من نبوده است. عنوان مقالهٔ من عنوان بالاست) منتشر شده است. این مقاله در ۱۴ آذر ۱۳۹۹ به فصلنامه تحویل داده شده بود و برای شمارهٔ دوم نوشته شده بود.  از آنجا که این مقاله با حذف تمامی یادداشت‌های حاشیه (بدون اطلاع نویسنده) و افزودن منابعی جعلی (دیگر به چه حقی دبیران فصلنامه‌ای برای مقاله‌ای «منابع» جعل می‌کنند؟) در انتهای مقاله منتشر شده بود، اکنون آن را منتشر می‌کنم و در اولین فرصت از مدیر مسئول و سردبیر این نشریه به دلیل حذف کامل تمامی یادداشت‌ها و جعل کردن «منابع» دروغین و دستکاری بی‌اجازه در مقاله شکایت می‌کنم.